Chapter 3

Question 1

Unconscious

Answer 1

In psychoanalytic theory, that part of the mind outside of conscious awareness, containing hidden instincts, impulses, and memories

Example: The unconscious mind may influence behavior without the individual being aware of it.

Question 2

Oedipal conflict

Answer 2

In Freudian theory, the erotic attachment to the other-sex parent, involving feelings of competition and hostility toward the same-sex parent and fears of retaliation (castration anxiety in boys) from the same-sex parent

Example: The Oedipal conflict is a key concept in psychoanalytic theory.

Question 3

Defense mechanism

Answer 3

In Freudian theory, strategy whereby a person avoids anxiety-arousing experiences

Example: Repression is a common defense mechanism used to prevent anxiety.

Question 4

Repression

Answer 4

Defense mechanism in which the anxiety-arousing memory or impulse is prevented from becoming conscious

Question 5

Reaction formation

Answer 5

Defense mechanism in which a person behaves in a way directly opposite from some underlying impulse

Someone experiencing reaction formation may act overly friendly to hide feelings of anger.

Question 6

Isolation

Answer 6

Defense mechanism in which a person separates emotional from intellectual content or otherwise separates experiences that would be anxiety arousing if permitted to occur together

Question 7

Displacement

Answer 7

Defense mechanism in which the person shifts a reaction from the original target person or situation to some other person or situation (e.g., anger displacement from boss to family)

Question 8

Projection

Answer 8

Defense mechanism in which a person disowns some impulse and attributes it to another person

Question 9

Intrapsychic

Answer 9

Unobservable mental events such as ideas, wishes, and unconscious conflicts

Question 10

Id

Answer 10

In Freudian theory, that part of the mind from which instinctual impulses originate

Example: The id operates on the pleasure principle.

Question 11

Ego

Answer 11

In Freudian theory, that part of the mind that mediates between id impulses and external reality

Example: The ego balances the demands of the id and superego.

Question 12

Superego

Answer 12

In Freudian theory, the internalized representative of parental or cultural values

Example: The superego aims for moral perfection.

Question 13

Libido

Answer 13

Psychoanalytic concept referring to sexual instincts

Example: Freud emphasized the role of libido in human behavior.

Question 14

Sublimation

Answer 14

Defense mechanism in which sexual instincts are rechanneled into substitute activities

Question 15

Fixation

Answer 15

In Freudian theory, an unusual investment of libidinal energy at a certain psychosexual stage

Question 16

Regression

Answer 16

In Freudian theory, a return to some earlier state of psychosexual development in the face of some current frustration

Question 17

Phobia

Answer 17

Strong, irrational fear of some specific object, animal, or situation

Example: Phobias can lead to avoidance behaviors.

Question 18

Free association

Answer 18

Basic procedure in psychoanalysis in which the patient is asked to say, without censorship, whatever comes to mind

Example: Free association can reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Question 19

Resistance

Answer 19

In psychoanalysis, the phenomenon in which patients unconsciously resist gaining insight into unconscious motives and conflicts

Example: Resistance can hinder the therapeutic process.

Question 20

Transference

Answer 20

Irrational emotional reaction of a patient to the therapist (usually in psychoanalysis) in which early attitudes toward parents are “transferred” to the therapist

Example: Transference can provide insights into past relationships.

Question 21

Behaviorism

Answer 21

An approach to understanding behavior that emphasizes the relation between observable behavior and specifiable environmental events (or stimuli)

Behaviorism focuses on external influences on behavior.

Question 22

Reinforcement

Answer 22

Consequence that strengthens the future probability of a response that produces it

Example: Reinforcement can increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Question 23

Primary reinforcer

Answer 23

Event, usually biological in nature, that almost always provides reinforcement, such as eating when hungry (Primary reinforcers do not acquire their reinforcing properties through learning.)

Example: Primary reinforcers are essential for survival.

Question 24

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 24

Consequence that has gained its reinforcing value by being paired with other reinforcers

Example: Money is a conditioned reinforcer in many cultures.

Question 25

Punisher

Answer 25

Type of consequence that weakens or suppresses the behaviors that produce it ## Footnote Punishment can decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Question 26

Contingency

Answer 26

The specified dependency between a behavior and its antecedents and consequences ## Footnote

Question 27

Positive reinforcement

Answer 27

The contingent presentation of a pleasant result, which strengthens subsequent responding ## Footnote Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Question 28

Negative reinforcement

Answer 28

The contingent removal of an unpleasant stimulus, which strengthens subsequent responding ## Footnote

Question 29

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 29

A stimulus that serves as a signal that a certain response will lead to a reinforce ## Footnote Discriminative stimuli help individuals differentiate between situations.

Question 30

Reversal design

Answer 30

An experimental design in which new reinforcement contingencies are instated for a period of time, followed by reinstatement of the old reinforcement contingencies, and finally the installment of the original, new contingencies (Sometimes a fourth reversal is included to show that the new contingencies are causing any observed changes in behavior.) ## Footnote

Question 31

Modeling

Answer 31

Teaching a behavior by performing the behavior and having the learner imitate it ## Footnote Modeling is an effective way to teach new skills.

Question 32

Systematic desensitization

Answer 32

A counterconditioning procedure in which subjects are exposed to gradually stronger anxiety-producing stimuli while maintaining a state of relaxation ## Footnote Systematic desensitization is used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders.

Question 33

Covert sensitization

Answer 33

Form of behavior therapy in which a person is asked to imagine an upsetting scene in order to produce a form of aversion conditioning ## Footnote Covert sensitization aims to reduce unwanted behaviors through negative associations.

Question 34

Mindfulness

Answer 34

Objective self-observation and acceptance of thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the body ## Footnote

Question 35

Humanistic approach

Answer 35

Emphasis on viewing people as whole human beings rather than analyzing them in an impersonal fashion ## Footnote Example: The humanistic approach focuses on individual growth and self-actualization.

Question 36

Chromosome

Answer 36

Elongated body in the cellular nucleus that carries genetic information (There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in human somatic cells.) ## Footnote Example: Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and characteristics.

Question 37

Gene

Answer 37

Unit of hereditary information carried in a chromosome by DNA ## Footnote Example: Genes are the basic units of inheritance.

Question 38

Genotype

Answer 38

Total set of inherited characteristics determined by a person’s genetic makeup ## Footnote Example: The genotype influences an individual's physical and behavioral traits.

Question 39

Phenotype

Answer 39

Observed characteristic that results from interaction between genotype and environmental influences ## Footnote Example: Phenotype can be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Question 40

Epigenetics

Answer 40

Study of heritable phenotypic variation resulting from environmental conditions and life experiences ## Footnote Example: Epigenetics explores how gene expression can be influenced by environmental factors.

Question 41

Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins

Answer 41

Twins resulting from the splitting of a single fertilized ovum who have exactly the same genetic makeup ## Footnote Example: Identical twins share 100% of their genetic material.

Question 42

Fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins

Answer 42

Twins that result from the simultaneous fertilization of two separate ova, with such a pair having the same degree of genetic similarity as any two nontwin siblings born to the same parent ## Footnote Example: Fraternal twins are no more genetically similar than regular siblings.

Question 43

Concordance

Answer 43

In genetic research, the degree to which related individuals share a similar trait ## Footnote Example: High concordance rates suggest a strong genetic influence on a trait.

Question 44

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Answer 44

Rare single-gene recessive metabolic disorder that can result in intellectual disability ## Footnote Example: Phenylketonuria requires dietary management to prevent complications.

Question 45

Neuron

Answer 45

Individual nerve cell ## Footnote Example: Neurons transmit signals in the nervous system.

Question 46

Dendrite

Answer 46

Branching fiber of a neuron that receives information from other neurons ## Footnote Example: Dendrites play a crucial role in neural communication.

Question 47

Dizygotic twins

Answer 47

Twins that result from the simultaneous fertilization of two separate ova, with such a pair having the same degree of genetic similarity as any two nontwin siblings born to the same parent ## Footnote Example: Fraternal twins

Question 48

Concordance

Answer 48

In genetic research, the degree to which related individuals share a similar trait

Question 49

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Answer 49

Rare single-gene recessive metabolic disorder that can result in intellectual disability

Question 50

Neuron

Answer 50

Individual nerve cell

Question 51

Dendrite

Answer 51

Branching fiber of a neuron that receives input from other neurons

Question 52

Axon

Answer 52

Part of the neuron that carries neural impulses to other cells

Question 53

Synapse

Answer 53

A tiny gap separating neurons, across which chemical communications between cells can occur

Question 54

Neurotransmitter

Answer 54

Chemical substance released into the synapse that enables transmission of impulses from one neuron to another

Question 55

Glial cells

Answer 55

Non-nerve cells that provide structural and metabolic support for neurons and neuronal transmission

Question 56

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Answer 56

Therapeutic induction of convulsive seizures by applying electrical current to the brain; found to have some effectiveness with severe depressions

Question 57

Psychosurgery

Answer 57

Procedure that attempts to treat abnormal behavior by surgical intervention on the brain

Question 58

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Answer 58

Proposed that the disorder was caused by excessive dopamine activity in the brain (hence, DA-blocking drugs like Thorazine were useful)

Question 59

Catecholamine hypothesis of depression

Answer 59

Proposed that the mood disorders resulted from a relative depletion of norepinephrine in the brain (hence, MAO-I drugs were useful because they enhanced NE activity)

Question 60

Tardive dyskinesia

Answer 60

Occasional long-term side effect of some antipsychotic medications that involves rhythmical, stereotyped movements and lip smacking