Chapter 3

Question 0

apprenticeship

Answer 0

mentorship in which a learner works intensively with an experienced adult to learn how to perform complex new skills

Question 1

Accommodation

Answer 1

responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one

Question 2

assimilation

Answer 2

responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme

Question 3

attention

Answer 3

focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli

Question 4

authentic activity

Answer 4

approach to instruction similar to one students might encounter in the outside world

Question 5

behaviorism

Answer 5

theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives. Adherents to this perspective are called behavorists

Question 6

bloom’s taxonomy

Answer 6

taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster

Question 7

classical conditioning

Answer 7

form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time

Question 8

cognitive modeling

Answer 8

demonstrating how to think about as well as well as how to do a task

Question 9

community of learners

Answer 9

class in which a teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to create a body of knowledge and help one another learn

Question 10

comprehension monitoring

Answer 10

process of checking oneself to be sure one understands and remembers newly acquired information

Question 11

concept map

Answer 11

diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic

Question 12

conceptual change

Answer 12

revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information

Question 13

concrete operations change

Answer 13

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited in concrete reality

Question 14

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 14

response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning

Question 15

conditioned stimuli

Answer 15

(CS) stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning

Question 16

conservation

Answer 16

realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement

Question 17

constructivism

Answer 17

theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowledge from their experiences - knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality.

Question 18

declarative knowledge

Answer 18

knowledge related to “what is” - that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be

Question 19

developmental milestone

Answer 19

appearance of a new, developmentally more advanced behavior

Question 20

disequilibrium

Answer 20

inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort

Question 21

elaboration

Answer 21

cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know

Question 22

encoding

Answer 22

changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily

Question 23

equilibrium

Answer 23

state of being able to explain new events with existing schemes

Question 24

formal operations stage

Answer 24

Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge

Question 25

guided participation

Answer 25

a child's performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world

Question 26

individual constructivism

Answer 26

theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them

Question 27

information processing theory

Answer 27

theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about (process) new information and events and how such processes change with development

Question 28

long-term memory

Answer 28

component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time

Question 29

maturation

Answer 29

unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops

Question 30

meaningful learning

Answer 30

cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know

Question 31

metacognition

Answer 31

knowledge and beliefs about one's own cognitive processes, as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory

Question 32

mnemonic

Answer 32

memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information

Question 33

modeling

Answer 33

demonstrating a behavior for another; also, observing and imitating another's behavior

Question 34

operant conditioning

Answer 34

form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement

Question 35

overgeneralization

Answer 35

overly broad view of the objects or events that a concept includes

Question 36

pre-operational stage

Answer 36

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways

Question 37

prior knowledge activation

Answer 37

process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic

Question 38

procedural knowledge

Answer 38

knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill)

Question 39

punishment

Answer 39

consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows

Question 40

reciprocal causation

Answer 40

mutual cause-and-effect relationships among environment, behavior, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development

Question 41

rehearsal

Answer 41

cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it

Question 42

reinforcement

Answer 42

act of following a response with a reinforcer

Question 43

retrieval

Answer 43

process of "finding" information previously stored in memory

Question 44

rote learning

Answer 44

learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it

Question 45

scaffolding

Answer 45

support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development

Question 46

scheme

Answer 46

In Piaget's theory, organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment

Question 47

schema

Answer 47

general understanding of what an object or event is typically like

Question 48

Semantic knowledge

Answer 48

knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations

Question 49

sensitive period

Answer 49

genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child's development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions

Question 50

Sensorimotor stage

Answer 50

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions

Question 51

sensory register

Answer 51

component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one or two seconds)

Question 52

spiral curriculum

Answer 52

Bruner's design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time

Question 53

situated learning and cognition

Answer 53

knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited if any use in other contexts

Question 54

social learning theory

Answer 54

theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name "social cognitive theory"

Question 55

social constructivism

Answer 55

theoretical perspective that focuses on people's collective efforts to impose meaning on the world

Question 56

stage theory

Answer 56

Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods (stage)

Question 57

transfer

Answer 57

phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation

Question 58

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Answer 58

response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning

Question 59

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Answer 59

Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning

Question 60

undergeneralization

Answer 60

overly narrow view of the objects or events that a concept includes

Question 61

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 61

phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response

Question 62

visual imagery

Answer 62

process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas

Question 63

working memory

Answer 63

component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information

Question 64

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Answer 64

range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently

Question 65

vicarious punishment

Answer 65

phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response