CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDIES + EXTRA CONTENT: DEVELOPMENT Flashcards
1
Q
Sustainable Development
A
- was first defined in the Brundtland Report (1987) as development that
“meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.” - Economic perspective, social perspective, environmental perspective
2
Q
How to Implement sustainable development
A
- Sustainable development goals:Launched by the United Nations in 2015,
these 17 goals create a global framework for addressing diverse
challenges including poverty, health, education, and climate action. The
SDGs emphasise interconnectedness of different areas of development
and necessitate collaborative global action. - Government and policy: Public policies are critical in shaping pathways
towards sustainable development. Environmental regulations, economic
incentives for green businesses, and support for renewable energy are
key areas. - Business and Economy: Shift from shareholder to stakeholder
capitalism, where businesses consider their impact on the environment,
society, and governance. Encourages transparency, ethical supply
chains, and sustainable corporate practices. - Community engagement and education: Communities play a critical role
in implementing sustainable practices locally. Education is crucial in
fostering an understanding of sustainability issues and empowering
future decision-makers.
3
Q
Challenges in implementing sustainable development
A
- Economic vs. Environmental Priorities: Tensions exist
between short-term economic growth and long-term environmental
goals. Developing countries often argue for their right to economic
development, similar to what developed countries experienced. - Measurement and Implementation: Sustainable development is
challenging to measure due to its complex and multi-dimensional
nature. Implementation is complicated by varying priorities and
capabilities of different countries. - Global Inequalities: Historical and current global inequalities complicate
the allocation of responsibilities and resources for sustainability. The
issue of climate justice highlights how those least responsible for
climate change are often the most affected
4
Q
Understanding Wellbeing: Physical and Mental Health
A
- Healthcare Access: Availability and quality of health services, including
preventive care and treatment. - Nutritional Food: The availability of and access to healthy food choices.
- Mental Health Services: Recognition and support for mental health as crucial
as physical health.
5
Q
Understanding Wellbeing: Economic Well-being
A
- GDP per Capita: Commonly used as a measure of economic health, but not a
comprehensive indicator of overall well-being. - Employment Rates and Income Distribution: Unemployment and unequal
income distribution can significantly impact societal well-being. - Poverty Levels: The extent and depth of poverty within a society are critical
indicators of its overall well-being.
6
Q
Understanding Wellbeing: Education and Skills
A
- Literacy and Numeracy: Fundamental skills impacting an individual’s ability to
participate fully in society. - Access to Quality Education: Including primary, secondary, and higher
education. - Vocational Training: Skills development for various economic opportunities.
7
Q
Understanding Wellbeing: Social Relationships
A
- Community Bonds: Strength and supportiveness of community networks.
- Family Structure and Support: The role of family in providing emotional and
economic support. - Social Networks: Extent and quality of connections within society.
8
Q
Understanding Wellbeing: Environment Quality
A
- Access to Clean Water and Air: Essential for physical health and overall
quality of life. - Green Spaces: Their availability and impact on mental and physical
well-being.
9
Q
Importance of democracy/political freedom in development and wellbeing
A
- Voice and Accountability: How freely citizens can express opinions, assemble,
and hold government accountable. - Rule of Law: Equal application and enforcement of laws, crucial for ensuring
justice and protecting rights. - Civil Liberties: Ensuring personal freedoms such as speech, assembly, and
belief. - Empowerment: By participating in a democratic process, citizens gain a sense
of control over their lives and environment. - Stability and Security: Democratic societies often experience lower levels of
conflict and higher social stability, aiding development.
10
Q
Importance of social freedom in development and wellbeing
A
- Gender Equality: Enacting and enforcing laws that promote equal
opportunities and rights for all genders. - Minority Rights: Safeguarding the rights and interests of all cultural, ethnic,
and religious minorities. - Anti-Discrimination: Strong legal frameworks and cultural norms that fight
against discrimination. - Inclusivity: Ensuring every member of society feels included and is able to
participate fully. - Sense of Belonging: People who experience less discrimination report higher
levels of happiness and belonging.
11
Q
Importance of well-functioning governmental institutions in development and
wellbeing
A
- Effective Governance: Involves transparency, accountability, and efficiency in
delivering public services. - Judicial System: A system that is independent, impartial, and effective
ensures justice and legal security. - Public Services: Accessibility and quality of basic services like education,
healthcare, and transportation. - Trust and Cooperation: Well-functioning institutions foster a sense of trust and
collaboration among citizens and between the public and private sectors. - Sustainable Growth: Effective institutions are foundational for achieving
long-term, inclusive societal growth and stability.
12
Q
Importance of well-functioning non governmental institutions in development and
wellbeing
A
- NGOs and INGOs: These organizations often address specific developmental
challenges like health, education, and poverty alleviation. - Community Organisations: Localised groups understanding and responding to
community needs and aspirations. - Trust and Cooperation: Well-functioning institutions foster a sense of trust and
collaboration among citizens and between the public and private sectors. - Sustainable Growth: Effective institutions are foundational for achieving
long-term, inclusive societal growth and stability.
12
Q
Challenges in guaging well-being with development
A
- Complex Measurement: Quantifying well-being is more nuanced than
traditional economic indicators. - Cultural Differences: Variations in cultural and societal values can lead to
differing perceptions and priorities regarding well-being.
13
Q
Human Development Index
A
- Key dimensions: longevity and health, education, standard of living
- Advantages: balanced measurement, global comparability, policy formation
and evaluation - Limitations: overlooking inequality, quantitative measures
14
Q
Why its important to consider broader measures of development
A
- Recognising Non-Market Values: These indices bring attention to non-market
activities and values, such as environmental conservation and social
cohesion, which are pivotal for sustainable development. - Policy Implications: They enable policymakers to design more comprehensive
and sustainable development strategies that address human, social, and
environmental needs
14
Q
Challenges in broader measures of development
A
- Data and Methodological Limitations: One of the main challenges in
implementing these broader measures is the lack of reliable and consistent
data. - Cultural and Contextual Variations: Different cultures and societies may value
aspects of development differently, challenging the universality of these
measures. - Balancing Quantitative and Qualitative: While quantitative data are crucial,
these measures must also encompass qualitative aspects to provide a fuller
picture of human progress.
15
Q
Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index
(CPI)
A
- Aim: Assesses and ranks countries according to the perceived level of
corruption in the public sector. - Scale: Ranges from 0 (signifying extreme corruption) to 100 (no corruption).
- Utility: Serves as a tool for evaluating government transparency and integrity
16
Q
Happy Planet Index
A
- Developed by the New Economics Foundation, the HPI challenges
the standard reliance on economic growth as the sole indicator of
development. It emphasises a balance between sustainable
well-being and environmental impact. - Considers ecological footprint, life expectancy and well-being
- Strengths: comprehensive, sustainability focussed
- Weaknesses: cultural differences, measurement challenges
17
Q
Political Influence on Development:
Ideologies and Their Impact on Development
A
- Ideologies fundamentally shape national policies and development
strategies, affecting economic models and social welfare systems. - Socialism and Communism: These ideologies advocate for state control over
resources and equitable distribution of wealth. They can ensure social welfare
but may inhibit free market efficiencies and innovation due to overregulation
and centralised control. - Capitalism: Characterised by private ownership and free markets, capitalism
fosters innovation and economic growth. However, unchecked capitalism can
lead to significant income inequalities and might not address social welfare
adequately. - Mixed Economies: Combining elements of both capitalism and socialism,
mixed economies aim to balance growth with social welfare. The
effectiveness of this balance plays a crucial role in sustainable development.
18
Q
Political Influence on Development:
Historical and Current Conflicts’ impact on
development
A
- Historical conflicts, like colonialism or world wars, have long-lasting impacts
on nations’ boundaries, societal structures, and economies. - Contemporary conflicts can decimate infrastructure, disrupt social order, and
divert resources from development to defense. - The aftermath of conflict often includes a need for massive reconstruction
efforts, dealing with displaced populations, and restoring governance and law
and order.
19
Q
Political Influence on Development: The Role
of Accountability and Transparency on
development
A
- Good governance, characterised by accountability and transparency,
is essential for effective and equitable development - Accountability ensures that government officials are answerable for their
actions and decisions, leading to more effective policy implementation. - Transparency helps in fighting corruption, a major impediment to equitable
and sustainable development. It ensures that government actions and use of
resources are visible and understandable to the public.
19
Q
Political Influence on Development: Political
Culture’s effects on development
A
- The collective attitudes, values, and norms that define a society’s
political life significantly influence development. - Cultures valuing democratic principles, human rights, and civic participation
tend to foster more inclusive and sustainable development. - Political culture can also impact attitudes towards innovation,
entrepreneurship, and education — all key drivers of development.
20
Q
Political Influence on Development: Political
Systems and Their Developmental Outcomes
A
- The nature of political systems — democratic, authoritarian, or hybrid
forms — influences development processes and outcomes. - Democracies: Typically associated with respect for individual rights, rule of
law, and inclusive policies, democracies are believed to create a conducive
environment for sustainable development. However, they can face challenges
in decision-making speed and policy continuity. - Authoritarian Regimes: Some authoritarian regimes have demonstrated rapid
economic growth and development, possibly due to quick decision-making
and long-term planning. The challenges often include human rights violations
and lack of public participation in governance.
21
Q
Intersectionality in Political and
Developmental Dynamics
A
- The interplay of political factors with economic, social, and
environmental issues adds further complexity to understanding
development. - Economic Policies: The intersection of political ideologies and economic
policies can lead to varied outcomes in terms of growth, equity, and
sustainability. - Social Policies: Political decisions on education, healthcare, and welfare are
crucial in determining the social dimensions of development
22
Economic Consideration in development: access to resources
1. Resources include natural commodities like minerals, fossil fuels, and water.
These resources can be leveraged for economic growth, often forming the
backbone of national industries.
2. Resource Wealth: Nations rich in natural resources can fund development
through export earnings.
3. Challenges: Dependency on resources can lead to economic volatility, and
environmental issues. The phenomenon of the 'resource curse' suggests that
countries with abundant resources might experience less economic growth
and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer resources.
4. Sustainability: Efficient and sustainable resource management is vital to
maximise benefits and minimise environmental impact.
23
Economic consideration in development: infrastructure
1. Infrastructure is the foundation for economic activities, encompassing
transportation (roads, railways, ports), utilities (electricity, water), and
communication networks.
2. Economic Integration: Robust infrastructure connects different regions within
a country, promoting trade and investment.
3. Barriers: Lack of infrastructure can lead to isolated communities and
industries, increasing costs and reducing competitiveness.
24
Economic consideration in development: Debt
1. National debt is the total amount borrowed by a government. While debt can
finance development, unsustainable levels can trigger economic crises.
2. Investment vs. Burden: Debt can be an investment in future growth, but
excessive debt can overwhelm government budgets, leading to spending cuts
and economic stagnation.
3. International Assistance: Debt relief initiatives and restructuring agreements,
such as those from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or World Bank, can
aid heavily indebted countries.
25
Economic consideration in development: Trade
1. By exporting goods and services, countries earn foreign exchange, improve
productivity, and access new technologies.
2. Market Access: Developing countries often struggle to access international
markets due to trade barriers and competition with more developed
economies.
3. Export Diversification: Dependence on a narrow range of exports can expose
countries to global market fluctuations.
26
Economic consideration in development: Aid
1. Aid can be bilateral (from one country to another), multilateral (through
international organisations), or from non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
2. infrastructure and Human Capital: Aid can support infrastructure projects and
enhance human capital through education and health.
3. Dependency and Effectiveness: Long-term reliance on aid can hinder
self-reliance. The effectiveness of aid is a subject of debate among
economists and policymakers.
27
Social Dynamics and Development: Values
1. Values underpin many aspects of a society’s operation, from
governance to everyday social interactions, directly affecting its
developmental journey.
2. Ethical Values and Governance: In societies where values like integrity and
accountability are esteemed, governance structures tend to be more
transparent, reducing corruption and fostering a climate conducive to
development. Effective governance also ensures equitable distribution of
resources, necessary for holistic development.
3. Entrepreneurial and Work Values: Societies valuing hard work, innovation,
and entrepreneurial risks often see a surge in start-ups and business growth,
leading to job creation and economic diversification.
4. Collectivism vs Individualism: Collectivist societies might focus more on
community welfare and social safety nets, influencing social policies and
development priorities. In contrast, individualistic cultures might foster
competitive environments encouraging personal achievement and innovation.
28
Social Dynamics and Development: Culture
1. Cultural aspects such as norms, beliefs, and practices play a critical
role in shaping developmental outcomes.
2. Cultural Barriers to Development: In some societies, cultural norms may
restrict women's or minority groups' participation in education or the labour
market, impeding these groups' economic empowerment and societal
development.
3. Role of Cultural Industries: Cultural industries like music, film, and literature
can be significant economic drivers, promoting not only cultural expression
but also creating jobs and stimulating creativity.
4. Cultural Adaptation to Change: Societies with cultures that are open and
adaptive to change, including technological advancements, are often better
placed to capitalise on development opportunities.
29
Social Dynamics and Development: Traditions
1. Long-standing traditions can have a lasting impact on development
processes, both positively and negatively.
2. Sustaining Traditional Practices: Traditional practices in agriculture,
healthcare, and crafts can provide sustainable, locally tailored development
solutions, promoting economic self-sufficiency and cultural preservation.
3. Traditions Impeding Progress: Conversely, certain traditions may hinder
progress, such as those limiting social mobility or access to modern
healthcare and education.
30
Social Dynamics and Development: Gender relations
1. Gender dynamics are a fundamental aspect of social dynamics, with
a significant impact on developmental outcomes.
2. Women in Leadership: Increased participation of women in political and
corporate leadership roles often leads to more inclusive and comprehensive
development policies.
3. Educating Girls and Women: Societies that invest in girls' education witness
improvements in various development indicators, including reduced child
mortality rates and increased economic growth.
4. Gender-Based Violence and Development: Prevalence of gender-based
violence can be a significant obstacle to development, limiting women's
participation in the workforce and imposing additional healthcare and social
costs
31
Interaction of Social Dynamics and
Development
1. The interaction of various elements of social dynamics creates
complex outcomes for development.
2. Values and Economic Policies: The interplay between societal values and
economic policies can either drive innovation and growth or contribute to
economic stagnation and inequality.
3. Gender and Cultural Norms: The intersection of gender with other cultural
norms can profoundly impact women's roles and opportunities in society,
influencing overall development.
32
Challenges in Balancing Social Dynamics
and Development
1. Balancing Modernisation and Tradition: One of the main challenges in
development is balancing the need for modernisation with the preservation of
cultural and traditional values. This balance is crucial for ensuring the
sustainability and acceptability of development initiatives.
2. Inequality and Social Justice: Addressing existing inequalities in gender,
economic status, and access to resources is critical for achieving inclusive
and sustainable development.
3. Managing Urbanisation and Migration: Countries face the challenge of
managing urban growth and migration, ensuring that development benefits
are broadly shared and do not exacerbate social disparities.
33
IMF’s role in development
1. Economic Surveillance: Monitors economic developments globally, advising
countries on policy adjustments.
2. Financial Support: Provides loans and financial mechanisms to countries
facing balance of payments problems.
3. Capacity Development: Offers guidance on building and maintaining robust
economic institutions.
4. Criticisms: Critiqued for promoting policies that can lead to reduced public
spending, affecting social welfare.
34
UN’s Role in development
1. Peacekeeping and Stability: Creates a secure environment for economic and
social development.
2. Human Rights Advocacy: Links development with human rights, influencing
policies to be more inclusive.
3. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Provides a universal blueprint for
addressing global challenges, including poverty, inequality, and climate
change.
4. Programmes and Agencies: Various UN bodies (e.g., UNDP, UNICEF) work
directly on development projects globally.
35
World Trade Organisations Role in Development
1. Liberalising Trade: Aims to reduce trade barriers which can be vital for
developing countries to integrate into the global economy.
2. Technical Assistance: Provides training and support to developing countries
for engaging in global trade.
3. Monitoring National Trade Policies: Ensures transparency and adherence to
international trade agreements.
36
Institutional Factors: Balancing Global Standards with Local
Realities
1. Contextualising Development Strategies: Strategies must be adaptable to the
diverse political, cultural, and economic contexts of different regions.
2. Ensuring Inclusivity: Development efforts should include marginalised groups
and consider gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic backgrounds.
36
Criticisms of Institutional Approach towards development
1. Addressing Western Bias: Global institutions are sometimes viewed as
propagating Western values and economic models, necessitating a more
inclusive approach.
2. Institutional Reforms: Regular reforms are necessary to keep these
institutions relevant, effective, and responsive to emerging global challenges.
37
Institutional Factors: Technology and Innovation are the future
1. Digital Transformation: The integration of digital technology in development
projects can enhance reach and efficiency.
2. Data-Driven Development: Utilising data analytics for informed
decision-making and policy formulation
38
Environmental Effects of Development: Geography
1. Location: Coastal nations often enjoy advantages in trade and access to
global markets, whereas landlocked nations might struggle with connectivity,
higher transport costs, and dependency on neighbours.
2. Terrain: Varied terrain like mountains, deserts, and forests can obstruct the
development of infrastructure and can limit the internal and external
movement of resources, goods, and people.
3. Climate: Extreme climates, be it excessively hot or cold, can hinder
agricultural productivity, industry, and overall living conditions, affecting
economic growth and development.
4. The Sahel Region: Characterised by arid conditions and unpredictable rainfall,
impacting agriculture and leading to food insecurity.
5. The Himalayan Region: Difficult mountainous terrain impacts transport and
infrastructure, influencing trade and access to services.
39
Environmental Effects of Development: Resource Endowment
1. Resource Richness: Nations with an abundance of resources such as oil,
minerals, or fertile land might see immediate economic growth; however, this
can also lead to challenges like economic overdependence and social and
political issues.
2. Resource Scarcity: Countries with limited natural resources might struggle to
sustain their populations and grow their economies, often leading to higher
levels of poverty and slower development.
3. The paradox of plenty: Reliance on a finite resource can lead to volatility in
economies. It also raises the risk of corruption, conflict over resource control,
and neglect of other economic sectors.
40
Environmental Effects of Development: Climate Change
1. Agricultural Impact: Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can lead to
crop failures, food insecurity, and increased vulnerability to famine.
2. Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and severe weather events like
hurricanes, floods, and droughts can destroy infrastructure, disrupt
economies, and displace populations.
3. Developing Countries Vulnerability: Often located in climate-sensitive regions
and lacking the resources to cope, developing countries are particularly
vulnerable to climate change.
41
Effect of Environmental Constraints on
Economic Activities
1. Agriculture: Soil quality, water availability, and climate conditions directly
impact agricultural productivity and thus the economy of regions reliant on
farming.
2. Energy Production: Geographic location influences the availability of
renewable resources like solar and wind energy, as well as non-renewable
resources like oil and coal.
3. E.g. netherlands: Renowned for its advanced water management strategies,
the Netherlands provides an example of how environmental constraints can
be transformed into an opportunity for development through innovation and
technology.
41
Environmental factors: Adaptation and
Mitigation Strategies in Development
1. Adaptation Strategies: Include developing drought-resistant crops, investing in
flood defence systems, and building resilient infrastructure to withstand
extreme weather events.
2. Mitigation Efforts: Encompass reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
transitioning to renewable energy sources, and conserving natural resources.
3. Agreements like the Paris Climate Accord reflect global recognition of the
need for cooperative action in addressing climate change and its impacts on
development.
42
Environmental Sustainability and
Development
1. Integrating environmental sustainability into development planning is
critical for long-term global prosperity.
2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Several SDGs explicitly address
environmental constraints, highlighting the interconnectedness of
environmental health and human development.
3. Green Economy: Investing in green technology and sustainable practices not
only mitigates environmental constraints but also can stimulate economic
growth and job creation.
4. E.g. through adoption of renewable energy or eco friendly agriculture
43
Economic development strategy: Trade liberalisation
1. Trade liberalisation involves the reduction or elimination of
government tariffs and restrictions on international trade.
2. Advantages: Allows domestic companies to expand their market reach,
boosting sales and profits. Encourages firms to become more competitive
globally, leading to better quality and innovation. Consumers gain from lower
prices and a greater variety of goods due to international competition.
3. Challenges: Domestic industries may struggle against more efficient or
cheaper foreign competitors, potentially leading to job losses. Over-reliance
on global markets can make countries vulnerable to external economic
shocks. Benefits and costs of liberalisation might not be evenly distributed
across different sectors or regions within the country.
44
Economic Development Strategy: Tourism
Tourism focuses on utilising the country's cultural, historical, or
natural assets to generate economic growth.
2. Advantages: Provides various sources of income, including accommodations,
restaurants, and local attractions. Creates jobs across different skill and
service levels, from hotel management to guiding services.an promote cultural
awareness and preservation.
3. Sustainable tourism, meaning cooperating with locals instead of travel
agencies and corporations is ideal in some ways too.
4. Challenges: Tourism often fluctuates seasonally, leading to periods of high
unemployment. Requires significant investment in infrastructure, which might
not be feasible for all regions. Excessive tourism can lead to natural
degradation and crowding out of local populations.
45
Economic Development Strategy: Circular Economy
Key principals of circular economy: resource efficiency, sustainable design,
regenerative approaches.
2. Advantages: Reduces the ecological footprint by decreasing waste and
promoting reuse. By reducing dependency on raw materials and imports,
economies can become more self-sufficient and resilient. Circular economy
models can foster new business opportunities and innovations in product life
cycle management.
46
Social Development Strategy: Civic Engagement
1. Citizenship engagement encompasses the involvement of citizens in
societal development through participation in political, economic, and
cultural activities. This concept is pivotal in democratic societies,
ensuring that governance is responsive, inclusive, and reflective of
the populace's needs.
2. Key principals: participation(Encouraging active involvement in elections,
public debates, and community projects.), awareness(Educating citizens
about their rights and responsibilities.), advocacy(Supporting citizen-led
initiatives to influence policy decisions.)
3. IMportance to development: democracy strengthening, ensures policies
reflect the needs of citizens, fosters social cohesion
4. Challenges in achieving civic engagement: political apathy and education and
socioeconomic barriers
46
The Role of the State in Addressing
Development Inequality
1. Economic policies and redistribution: Progressive taxation and social security
systems are fundamental tools states can use to redistribute wealth and reduce
income inequality. Investment in public goods, such as education, healthcare, and
infrastructure, directly impacts the quality of life and can help in lifting populations out
of poverty.
2. Regulatory Frameworks: Enforcing strict regulatory frameworks on business
practices, environmental conservation, and labour laws can check the
exploitative tendencies of MNCs. Introducing minimum wage laws, mandatory
corporate social responsibility (CSR), and strict environmental regulations can
lead to more equitable development.
3. Challenges faced by the state: Political instability, corruption, and limited
resources can hinder the effective implementation of policies aimed at
reducing inequality. States often grapple with the challenge of attracting
foreign investment while simultaneously upholding high regulatory standards,
which can sometimes lead to a 'race to the bottom' in terms of labour and
environmental standards.
46
The role of Intergovernmental Organisations
(IGOs) in addressing Inequality
1. Promoting Equity and development: The United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) are a pivotal framework many IGOs align with to
tackle global inequality. Financial and technical assistance from organisations
like the World Bank and IMF are crucial for developing countries, although the
conditions attached to these aids and loans often spark debate.
2. Limitations: The influence of powerful member states in IGOs can lead to
policies that prioritise their interests over the needs of the less developed
nations. Critics argue that programmes like SAPs often lead to cuts in
essential public services, exacerbating poverty and inequality in the name of
economic stabilisation.
47
The role of NGOs in addressing Inequality
1. Grassroots movements and advocacy: NGOs often work directly with
marginalised communities, giving them a platform to voice their concerns and
demands. They play a crucial role in influencing public opinion and
policy-making, advocating for human rights, environmental protection, and
social justice.
2. Accountability and transparency: NGOs monitor and report on both state and
corporate activities, holding them accountable for their impacts on society and
the environment. Transparency International, for example, plays a critical role
in highlighting issues of corruption that directly affect development and
inequality
3. Challenges and limitations: NGOs sometimes face accusations of being too
Western-centric or not adequately understanding local contexts and needs.
Operational challenges, including funding dependence, bureaucratic hurdles,
and political opposition, can impede their effectiveness and reach.
48
The role of Multinational corporations in addressing inequality
1. Contributions to economic growth: By creating jobs, paying taxes, and
bringing investment, MNCs can contribute significantly to national economies.
Their global reach and resources enable them to introduce innovative
technologies and business practices in developing markets.
2. Critiques of MNCs: There are numerous instances where MNCs have been
implicated in human rights abuses, unfair labour practices, and environmental
damage in pursuit of profit. The issue of profit repatriation and tax avoidance
by MNCs results in significant capital flight from developing countries,
undermining their economic development.
3. Regulating MNCs: National and international efforts to regulate MNCs include
corporate taxation policies, anti-trust laws, and international agreements on
labour and environmental standards. Initiatives like the United Nations Global
Compact aim to encourage sustainable and socially responsible policies
among businesses.
49
Financial Flows and Development Inequality
1. Foreign direct investment and aid: While FDI can bring in much-needed
capital, technology, and expertise, it needs careful regulation to ensure
benefits are widely distributed and sustainable. Aid, both bilateral and
multilateral, is crucial for development projects but can sometimes be tied to
the political and economic interests of donor countries, influencing domestic
policies in recipient countries.
2. Tax evasions and illicit financial flows: Developing countries lose huge sums
every year due to tax evasion by both local elites and foreign corporations.
Global efforts to curb tax evasion, such as the OECD's Global Forum on
Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes, are critical in
ensuring fair taxation.
3. The role of international cooperation: Addressing issues like tax evasion,
unequal trade practices, and harmful financial speculation require coordinated
international action. Global agreements and cooperation, such as the
Financial Action Task Force (FATF) on money laundering, are vital in
managing these challenges.
50
Challenges in International Negotiations about sustainable development
1. North-South Divide: Tensions between developed (North) and developing
(South) nations regarding responsibilities and resources for tackling climate
change.
2. Trade-offs Between Economic Growth and Environmental Protection: Diverse
national priorities can hinder a collective response to environmental issues.
3. Compliance and Enforcement Mechanisms: Ensuring countries adhere to
their commitments remains a complex issue.
51
Role of Different Policy Levels in Sustainable
Development
1. International Level: Global Policy Frameworks(e.g. SDGs), international funding and
aid
2. National(government) level: legislative actions, national sustainable development
strategies
3. Local Level: local governance and implementation, community based initiatives
52
Political Challenges in achieving sustainable development
1. Policy and governance challenges: maintaining Political Will(social contract sort
of) and Leadership and interdepartmental coordination
2. Economic and resource based challenges: acquiring funding, shifting away
from fossil fuels is expensive
3. Sociopolitical issues: public trust is necessary or else it wont work, there
needs to be inclusivity and equity(dont screw over indigenous people)
53
Opportunities for enhancing sustainable development policies
1. Innovation and technology: sustainable urban planning, technology
transfer(requires international cooperation)
2. International cooperation and global governance: climate diplomacy,
transnational networks(share information and advice)
3. Education and mobilising public opinion: environmental education(youth are
the future… lol), activism and advocacy(creates pressure
