CHAPTER 3: STRESS AS AN EXAMPLE OF A PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL PROCESS

Question 1

stressor

Answer 1

stimuli (situations and events) that cause or produce stress and challenge or ability to cope

Question 2

internal stressor?

Answer 2

an internal stressor originates within the individual: a personal problem
* e.g: perfectionism, dehydration, physical pain

Question 3

external stressor?

Answer 3

an external stressor originates outside the individual from situations and events in the environment
* e.g: crowded classroom, losing your mobile phone, relationship break-up

Question 4

what is stress?

Answer 4

stress is a state of physiological (‘biological’) and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.
* stress is subjective, individuals experiences the psychological side of stress differently.

Question 5

acute stress

Answer 5

stress produces high arousal over a short time e.g taking a test

Question 6

episodic acute stress?

Answer 6

if acute stress occurs over and over again. e.g: due to the death of a pet or a health problem

Question 7

chronic stress?

Answer 7

ongoing demands and pressures that are long-lasting
e.g relationship problems

Question 8

what is the fight-flight-freeze response?

Answer 8

the FFF response is an involuntary, physical adaptive response to a sudden & immediate threat (stressor) in readiness to:
* fight: confronting and fighting off a threat
* flight: escaping by running away from the threat to safety
* freeze: keeping absolutely still and silent to avoid detection
the FFF response occurs before the brain’s visual info and depending on the situation, any three of the options will occur

Question 9

how can stress be beneficial?

Answer 9

stress can cause our body to release adrenaline, which can help us to accomplish assignments and projects, and can even enhance our problem-solving ability or physical performance

Question 10

describe the process when a fight or flight reaction occurs

Answer 10

1. when a threat is experienced, this is detected by the amygdala which sends a signal to the hypothalamus.
2. the hypothalamus initially responds to the stressor by activating the sympathetic nervous system
3. the SNS then stimulates the adrenal medulla
4. the adrenal gland secretes hormones such as adrenaline or noradrenaline into the blood stream
5. the stress hormones then circulate in the blood, activating various organs (heart, lungs, liver, kidney) and boosting other physiological processes that prepare the body for action
6. the hypothalamus stimulates the nearby pituary gland to initiate a process for secretion of additional stress hormones (HPA axis)
7. these hormones (most abundantly cortisol) are released from the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal glands

Question 11

why do we feel stress?

Answer 11

we feel stress when faced with events that we perceive as threatening or challenging

Question 12

purpose of stress

Answer 12

stress’s purpose is to enable us to rise to the challenge and overcome whatever obstacle is obstructing us.

Question 13

examples of freeze reactions

Answer 13

• body movements and vocalisations stop
• HR slows
• BP drops
• tense muscles collapse
• hypervigilance
• watchful
• tonic immobility: frozen state of the body.
• psychological detachment.

Question 14

purpose of freeze reactions

Answer 14

• purpose of the freeze reaction is to avoid detection, conserve energy until predator loses interest.
• the energy conserving ‘rest and relaxation’ actions of the parasympathetic nervous system dominate.

Question 15

potential harmful effects associated w/ a prolonged high level of cortisol

Answer 15

• impared immune system functioning
• high blood pressure
• high blood sugar level
• digestive problems
• vulnerability to colds and flu
• vulnerability to heart disease

Question 16

role of cortisol

Answer 16

• used when we have to deal with a stressor over a long time.
• adrenaline and noradrenaline don’t last long so HPA axis is activated.
• cortisol energises the body by increasing blood sugar (metabolism).
• cortisol—>activates liver—>releases glucose—>for muscles to be activated
• cortisol has an anti-inflammatory effect on the body.
• leads to impaired immune system —> colds, flu, diabetes, learning problems, memory impairment, anxiety etc.

Question 17

explain whether the FFF response is a conscious/ unconscious response

Answer 17

the FFF response is involuntary response as it has evolved as a part of a survival mechanism - enabling us to react effectively to events that threatened our wellbeing or even our lives

Question 18

list physiological changes commonly occuring with a fight/ flight reaction

Answer 18

• increased heart rate & blood pressure
• increased breathing rate
• dilation of pupils
• increased glucose secretion by liver

Question 19

list physiological changes commonly occuring with a freeze reaction

Answer 19

• may hold or restrict breathing
• heart rate decreases
• heaviness in limbs
• rigidly immobile

Question 20

list two roles of cortisol in chronic stress

Answer 20

• energise the body by increasing energy supplies such as blood sugar and enhancing metabolism.
• cortisol also turns off all bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor

Question 21

what is the gut-brain axis?

Answer 21

Bi-directional , multi faceted communication link between central and enteric nervous systems. E.g: when we feel stressed and anxious we may end up with an upset stomach due to the signals our brain has sent out. Gut disruptions affect out mood, emotional arousal, motivation, behaviour, cognitive abilities

Question 22

gut microbiota

Answer 22

• each individual has their own gut microbiota comprising all the microorganisms - viruses, bacteria and fungi present in their digestive tract.
• This microbiome can be affected by both internal
  and external factors, including diet, infection, disease and lifestyle choice, as well as age.

Question 23

how can stress disrupt the gut brain axis and gut microbiota?

Answer 23

Stress disturbs the balance of the gut microbiota by
* influencing the person’s susceptibility to stress, physiological stress responses, stress induced changes in psychological processes and behaviour, stress resilience, and recovery from stress induced changes
* the gut-brain-microbiome interaction, thereby influencing the development of of gastrointestinal disorders. Gastrointestinal disorders, stress-induced changes in psychological processes and behaviour, vulnerability to mental health and various other disorders

Question 24

role of adrenaline

Answer 24

Adrenaline (epinephrine) is a hormone your adrenal glands make to help you prepare for stressful or dangerous situations. Adrenaline rush is the name for the quick release of adrenaline into your bloodstream. This gets your body ready for a “fight or flight” response.

Question 25

seyle’s general adaptation syndrome

GAS

Answer 25

• Han’s Seyle’s research focuses on long-term effects of stress on rats.
• He found that the physiological arousal pattern in response to a variety of stressors (tail-pulling, prolonged exposure to cold/hot, electric shocks etc) was the same.
• Stress is a condition that is nonspecific.

Question 26

stage 1: alarm reaction

GAS model

Answer 26

This initial stage of the GAS is a general defensive reaction to the stressor, and results in a state of tension and alertness, and a readiness to respond to the stressor.
* shock: the body goes into a temporary state of shock, and its ability to deal with the stressor falls below its normal level. Physiologically, the body reacts as if it were injured, marked by a decrease in body temperature, blood pressure, and muscle tone and loss of fluid from body tissues.
* counter shock: the sympathetic nervous system is activated and the body’s resistance to the stressor increases. The organism’s response is a fight or flight reaction. It becomes highly aroused and alert as it prepares to deal with the stressor. Adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and other stress hormones are released into the blood stream and the organism’s heart and respiratory system respond by

Question 27

stage 2: resistance

GAS model

Answer 27

• The body’s resistance to the particular stressor rises above normal. The intense arousal of the alarm reaction stage diminishes through activity of the parasympathetic system, but physiological arousal remains at a level above normal (even though heart and respiration rates may have slowed down). Since the body is being taxed to generate resistance, all unnecessary physiological
  processes are shut down.
• e.g: digestion, growth and sex drive stall, menstruation stops, and the production of testosterone and sperm decrease.

Question 28

stage 3: exhaustion

GAS model

Answer 28

Some of the alarm reaction changes may reappear, but the body cannot sustain its resistance and the effects of the stressor can no longer be dealt with. Because the organism has been trying to deal with the stressor for a prolonged time, its resources such as stress hormones have been depleted its resistance to disease is very weak, and it becomes more vulnerable to physicaland mental disorders.
* The exhaustion stage is evidenced by such changes as fatigue, sleep disturbances, severe loss of concentration, vulnerability to anxiety attacks, irritability, depressed mood, jumpiness and crying spells.
* High blood pressure can develop into hypertension and heart disease and gastrointestinal problems may also occur.
* Changes to body organs may be permanent. In extreme cases, if the stress continues further, the organism may even die.

Question 29

strengths of the GAS model

Answer 29

• describes how stress could weaken the body’s ability to resist infection and increase the likelihood of developing a physical disorder
• identifies biological processes associated with the body’s stress response (e.g endocrine system).
• tells us that GAS will occur in response to any
  type of stressor and that our bodies have only a limited
  amount of resources in coping with prolonged stress.
• influential through its description and explanation of the potentially detrimental effects of the three-stage adaptation
  process following exposure to a persistent stressor.

Question 30

limitations of the GAS model

Answer 30

• GAS is a ‘one size fits all’ model. It assumes that everyone has the same general, predictable and automatic physiological responses to any kind of stressor
• the GAS does not fully take account of or explain individual differences in physiological responses to a stressor.
• the GAS also tends to understate the roles of bodily systems other than the endocrine system in the stress response and overlooks our psychological response to different types of stressors
• Selye’s description of the GAS as a non-specific stress response may also be limited. For instance, there is research evidence that different types of stressors can trigger their own distinctivephysiological reactions
• GAS has been criticised for being primarily based on the results of research with animals and may therefore be of limited relevance to the human stress response.

Question 31

Lazarus and Folkman Transactional Model of
Stress and Coping

Answer 31

proposes that stress involves an encounter (‘transaction’) between an individual and their external environment, and that a stress response depends upon the individual’s evaluation (‘appraisal’) of the relevance of the stressor to his or her wellbeing and their ability to cope with it.
* stress is not a result of the individual alone or the environment alone. The environment can influence the individual, but the individual can also influence the environment.
* an individual’s appraisal of the situation and of their resources for dealing with that situation determine whether or not they experience stress and the nature of their stress response. When there is an imbalance between a person’s appraisal of the demands of the situation and their estimation of their ability to meet those demands, then they will experience stress.

Question 32

how is stress subjective (explain different interpretations of a stressor)

Answer 32

stress is largely ‘in the eye of the beholder’ and therefore a product of each individual’s appraisal of a stressor. Furthermore, the event with which the individual has a ‘transaction’ will lead to stress only if they appraise that event as unpleasant, uncomfortable

Question 33

strengths of the lazarus & folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping

Answer 33

• focuses on psychological determinants of the stress response over which we have control
• emphasises the personal nature and individuality of the stress response
• views stress as an interaction with the environment in which the individual has an active role
• respects personal appraisals of a situation, thereby interpreting the situation from an individual’s perspective
• explains why individuals respond in different ways to the same types of stressors
• allows for the fact that stressors and the circumstances under which they occur can change over time
• allows us to change our thinking about a stressor and our response proposes different methods for managing psychological responses to stressors.

Question 34

limitations of the lazarus & folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping

Answer 34

• difficult to test through experimental research because of the subjective nature of individual responses to stressors
• individuals may not always be conscious of all the factors causing them to experience a stress response
• we can experience a stress response without ever having thought about a situation or event (i.e. appraisal is not essential)
• overlooks physiological responses to a stressor
• the linear approach of the model does not allow for individual variation in progression through the stages
• primary and secondary appraisals can interact with one another and are often undertaken simultaneously
• primary and secondary appraisals are difficult to isolate for study as separate variables.

Question 35

approach coping strategies

Answer 35

Approach coping strategies involve efforts to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects. Activity is focused towards the stressor, its causes and a solution that will address the underlying problem, issue or concern and minimise or eliminate its impact.
* e.g: an approach strategy for a stressor involving loss of a job through retrenchment is to search for a new job.

Question 36

avoidance coping strategies

Answer 36

Avoidance coping strategies involve efforts that evade a stressor and deal indirectly with it and its effects. Activity is focused away from the stressor and there is no attempt to actively confront the stressor and its causes.
* e.g: an avoidance strategy for a job loss stressor may be to not tell anyone and not think about it.

Question 37

how can avoidance strategies be helpful?

Answer 37

When coping with a number of stressors at the one time, selectively avoiding to deal with unchangeable aspects of a stressor by ‘switching off’ may be considered an adaptive strategy - allows for the conservation of energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed.
* e.g: disengagement, might be appropriate in a situation where nothing can be done (such as awaiting the outcome of an important medical test), but might be detrimental when action is needed (such as seeking medical attention for a serious health problem).
* ignoring a relationship problem for a couple of days while focusing on an important priority at work can also provide ‘time
out’ from one stressor while minimising potential stress from another source, such as the workplace.

Question 38

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primary appraisal

Answer 38

We evaluate, or ‘judge’, the significance of the event and whether anything is at stake in this encounter.
* May ask questions such as ‘Is this something I have to
deal with?’, ‘Am I in trouble?’, ‘Is there any benefit?’ and ‘Does this matter to me?’

The outcome of a primary appraisal is a decision about whether the event is irrelevant, benign–positive or stressful.

Question 39

harm/loss

primary appraisal

Answer 39

an assessment of how much damage has already occurred (e.g. ‘I have lost my job’)

Question 40

threat

primary appraisal

Answer 40

an assessment of harm/loss that may not have yet occurred but could occur in the future (e.g. ‘I mightn’t be able to afford the rent’),

Question 41

challenge

primary appraisal

Answer 41

an assessment of the potential for personal gain or growth from the situation (e.g. ‘I’ll get any other job I can and will learn to budget and save money’).

Question 42

secondary appraisal

Answer 42

we evaluate our ability to control or overcome the situation in which we find ourselves. This includes an evaluation of our coping options and resources for dealing with the event. The coping options and resources available may be
* internal (e.g. strength and determination)
* external (e.g. money and support from family or friends).

If the coping demands of the situation are perceived as being far greater than the resources that are available, then we are likely to experience a stress response. The discrepancy that is perceived may also trigger a search for additional or new resources that can be used to cope with the stress.