Chapter 4

Question 1

19th century monk Gregor Mendel demonstrated that inheritance occurs through discrete units of heredity, known as _________.

Answer 1

Genes

Question 2

Genes come in pairs, known as ________, and are aligned across chromosomes.

Answer 2

Alleles

Question 3

A _______ is defined as a portion of a chromosome and is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Answer 3

Gene

Question 4

DNA serves as a model for the synthesis of _______, which is a single stranded chemical that serves as a template/model for the synthesis of proteins.

Answer 4

RNA

Question 5

_________ determine the development of the body by forming part of the structure of the body and serving as enzymes and biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body.

Answer 5

Proteins

Question 6

Being _________ for a gene means that a person has an identical pair of genes on the two chromosomes.

Answer 6

Homozygous

Question 7

Being ________ for a gene means that a person has an unmatched pair of genes on the two chromosomes.

Answer 7

Heterozygous

Question 8

An _________ gene occurs in phenotype where there is incomplete dominance in the heterozygous condition.

Answer 8

Intermediate

Question 9

_________ genes are all other genes except for sex linked genes.

Answer 9

Autosomal

Question 10

__________ genes are genes located on the sex chromosome.

Answer 10

Sex-Linked

Question 11

__________ genes are genes that are present in both sexes but mainly have an effect on one sex (e.g. chest hair, breast size).

Answer 11

Sex-Limited

Question 12

_________ is a heritable change in a DNA molecule.

Answer 12

Mutation

Question 13

___________ or ___________ is part of a chromosome that may appear twice or not at all.

Answer 13

Microduplication
Microdeletion

Question 14

__________ is a field that is concerned with changes in gene expression without the modification of the DNA sequence.

Answer 14

Epigenetics

Question 15

_________ alter the activity of genes as said by epigenetics.

Answer 15

Experiences

Question 16

_________ refers to how much characteristics depend on genetic differences.

Answer 16

Heritability

Question 17

Traits with strong hereditary influence can be modified by _____________.

Answer 17

Environmental Intervention

Question 18

T/F: Genes do not directly produce behaviors. Rather, genes produce proteins that increase the probability that a behavior will develop under certain circumstances.

Answer 18

True

Question 19

_________ refers to a change in the frequency of various genes in a population over generation, regardless of whether the change is helpful or harmful to the species.

Answer 19

Evolution

Question 20

___________, ___________, and ________ of genes introduce new hereditary variations.

Answer 20

Mutations
Recombination
Microdupilications

Question 21

___________ refers to choosing individuals with desired traits and making them parents of the next generation.

Answer 21

Artificial Selection

Question 22

Which type of evolution is described by “the use or disuse of some structure or behavior causes an increase or decrease in that behavior”?

Answer 22

Lamarckian Evolution

Question 23

T/F: Lamarckian Evolution is a common misconception about evolution.

Answer 23

True

Question 24

One explanation for brain evolution is that our ancestors managed to get enough _______ to provide a big brain with all the fuel it needs. They accomplished this through cooking food which made it easier to digest, group hunting became more effective, and better capacity for glucose transport.

Answer 24

Nutrition

Question 25

___________ assumes that behaviors characteristic of a species have arisen through natural selection and provide a survival advantage.

Answer 25

Evolutionary Psychology

Question 26

_________ behavior is a behavior that benefits someone other than the actor and is hard to find outside of humans.

Answer 26

Altruistic

Question 27

___________ is a controversial hypothesis that states that altruistic groups survive better than less cooperative ones.

Answer 27

Group Selection

Question 28

________ is a form of natural selection in which a gene spreads because it increases the reproductive success of the individuals relatives, even if it doesn't directly benefit the individual carrying the gene.

Answer 28

Kin Selection

Question 29

____________ is the idea that individuals help those that will return the favor, as building a reputation for helpfulness only works if others are willing to cooperate with you.

Answer 29

Reciprocal Altruism

Question 30

Brain development depends on ________ and _______.

Answer 30

Maturation Learning

Question 31

The human central nervous system begins to form when the embryo is approximately how old?

Answer 31

Two Weeks Old

Question 32

In the process of ______ brain formation, the dorsal surface thickens forming a neural tube surrounding a fluid filled cavity. The forward end enlarges and differentiates into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord.

Answer 32

Embryo

Question 33

In embryo brain development, the fluid-filled cavity becomes the central canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain that contain _____________.

Answer 33

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Question 34

How many grams does the human brain weigh at birth? What about by the first year? How much in adulthood?

Answer 34

~350g at birth ~1000 first year ~1300 adulthood

Question 35

What are the five steps in the development of neurons?

Answer 35

1. Proliferation 2. Migration 3. Differentiation 4. Myelination 5. Synaptogenesis

Question 36

_________ is the production of new cells/neurons in the brain primarily occurring early in life.

Answer 36

Proliferation

Question 37

Proliferation: Early in development, the cells lining the _______ divide. Some cells become ______ cells that continue to divide. Others remain where they are or become _______ or ______ that migrate to other locations.

Answer 37

Ventricles Stem Neurons Glia

Question 38

___________ describes the movement of the newly formed neurons and glia to their eventual locations, some do not reach their destinations until adulthood.

Answer 38

Migration

Question 39

Migration occurs in a variety of directions throughout the brain and is guided by chemicals known as ___________ and __________.

Answer 39

Immunoglobulins Chemokines

Question 40

__________ describes the forming of the axon and dendrites that give the neuron its distinct shape.

Answer 40

Differentiation

Question 41

In Differentiation, the _____ grows first either during migration or once it has reached its target and is followed by the development of the _________.

Answer 41

Axon Dendrites

Question 42

__________ is the process by which glia produce the fatty sheath that covers the axons of some neurons.

Answer 42

Myelination

Question 43

______ speeds up the transmission of neural impulses.

Answer 43

Myelin

Question 44

Myelination first occurs in the spinal cord, and then in the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain and occurs gradually for ________.

Answer 44

Decades

Question 45

___________ describes the formation of the synapses between neurons.

Answer 45

Synaptogenesis

Question 46

__________ occurs throughout the life as neurons are constantly forming new connections and discarding old ones.

Answer 46

Synaptogenesis

Question 47

T/F: Synaptogenesis increases significantly later in the lifetime.

Answer 47

False, it slows significantly later in the lifetime.

Question 48

_________ are undifferentiated cells found in the interior of the brain that generate "daughter cells" that can transform into glia or neurons.

Answer 48

Stem Cells

Question 49

T/F: It was originally believed that no new neurons were formed after early development, however this was proven false due to stem cells and new olfactory receptors continually replacing dying ones.

Answer 49

True

Question 50

Stem cells differentiate into new neurons in the adult __________ of mammals and facilitate learning.

Answer 50

Hippocampus

Question 51

Which cells tend to be the newest in a person (under a year old)? Which cells are the oldest (tend to be as old as the person)?

Answer 51

Skin Cells Heart Cells

Question 52

Mammalian _______ _______ form few or no new neurons after birth.

Answer 52

Cerebral Cortexes

Question 53

Growing axons reach their target area by following a gradient of _______ in which they are attracted to some and repelled by others.

Answer 53

Chemicals

Question 54

T/F: When axons initially reach their targets, they form synapses with several cells. Postsynaptic cells strengthen connection with some cells and eliminate connections with others. The formation or elimination of these connections depend on the pattern of input from incoming axons.

Answer 54

True

Question 55

Some theorists refer to the idea of the selection process of neural connections as neural __________.

Answer 55

Darwinism

Question 56

____________ is a type of protein released by muscles that promotes the survival and growth of axons.

Answer 56

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

Question 57

T/F: Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles determine how many axons form.

Answer 57

False, they determine how many axons survive, not form.

Question 58

__________ are chemicals that promote the survival and activity of neurons (i.e. NGF).

Answer 58

Neurotropins

Question 59

Axons that are not exposed to neurotropins after making connections undergo _________.

Answer 59

Apoptosis

Question 60

T/F: The visual cortex is thicker in blind people as it cannot prune out ineffective neurons.

Answer 60

True

Question 61

__________ in the brain during early development can cause significant impairment and developmental problems.

Answer 61

Chemical Distortions

Question 62

The dendrites of children born with fetal alcohol syndrome are ______ with few ________.

Answer 62

Short Branches

Question 63

Exposure to alcohol in the fetus brain suppresses ________ and enhances the release of ________.

Answer 63

Glutamate GABA

Question 64

Neurons in different parts of the brain differ from one another in their ________ and _____________.

Answer 64

Shape Chemical Components

Question 65

The gain and loss of ___________ indicates new connections, which relates to learning.

Answer 65

Dendritic Spines

Question 66

It was once believed that teaching a child a difficult concept would enhance intelligence in other areas in a concept known as "___________"

Answer 66

Far Transfer

Question 67

T/F: In blind people, the occipital lobe normally dedicated to processing visual information adapts to also process tactile and verbal information.

Answer 67

True

Question 68

______________ or "musicians cramp" refers to a condition where the reorganization of the brain goes too far in the sensory thalamus and cortex so that touch responses to one finger overlap those of another.

Answer 68

Focal Hand Dystonia

Question 69

The prefrontal cortex of ___________ is relatively inactive in certain situations, but this may or may not be the cause of impulsivity.

Answer 69

Adolescents

Question 70

At an (younger/older) age, some neurons lose their synapses, remaining synapses change more slowly than before in response to experiences, and brain structures begin to lose volume.

Answer 70

Older

Question 71

T/F: Almost all survivors of brain damage show behavioral recovery to some degree, mainly relying on the growth of new branches of axons and dendrites.

Answer 71

True

Question 72

Tumors, infections, exposure to toxic substances/radiation, degenerative diseases, and closed head injuries are possible causes of brain ________.

Answer 72

Damage

Question 73

A _______ head injury refers to a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain and is more common among young adults.

Answer 73

Closed

Question 74

A ________ or _________ accident is temporary loss of blood flow to the brain and is a common cause of brain damage in elderly.

Answer 74

Stroke Cerebrovascular Accident

Question 75

________ is the most common type of stroke, resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an artery.

Answer 75

Ischemia

Question 76

In which type of stroke do neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply?

Answer 76

Ischemia

Question 77

________ is a less frequent type of stroke resulting from a ruptured artery.

Answer 77

Hemorrhage

Question 78

In which type of stroke are neurons flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals?

Answer 78

Hemorrhage

Question 79

Ischemia and hemorrhage can also cause ________, which is the accumulation of fluid in the brain resulting in increased pressure on the brain and increasing the probability of further strokes.

Answer 79

Edema

Question 80

Ischemia and hemorrhage can also cause disruption of the sodium-potassium pump leading to the accumulation of ________ ions inside neurons.

Answer 80

Potassium

Question 81

Edema and excess potassium triggers the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter _______. This overstimulation of neurons leads to ________ and other ions entering the neuron in excessive amounts. Excess positive ions in the neuron block ________ in the mitochondria and kill the neuron.

Answer 81

Glutamate Sodium Metabolism

Question 82

Immediate treatments for stroke include a drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) that breaks up _________ and can reduce the effects of an ischemic strokes.

Answer 82

Blood Clots

Question 83

Research has begun to attempt to save neurons from death by blocking what two factors?

Answer 83

Glutamate Synapses Calcium Entry

Question 84

One of the most effective laboratory methods used to minimize damage caused by strokes is to _____ the brain.

Answer 84

Cool

Question 85

Cannabanoids can potentially minimize cell loss after a brain stroke due to their ____________ effects.

Answer 85

Anti-Inflammatory

Question 86

_________ is the decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other neurons.

Answer 86

Diaschisis

Question 87

Drugs, specifically ________, may stimulate activity in healthy regions of the brain after a stroke.

Answer 87

Stimulants

Question 88

Destroyed _________ cannot be replaced, but damaged _______ do grow back under certain circumstances.

Answer 88

Cell Bodies Axons

Question 89

Damaged axons do not readily __________ in a mature mammalian brain or spinal cord.

Answer 89

Regenerate

Question 90

________ makes a mechanical barrier to axon growth.

Answer 90

Scar Tissue

Question 91

___________ are new branches formed by other non-damaged axons that attach to vacant receptors.

Answer 91

Collateral Sprouts

Question 92

Cells that have lost their source of innervation release ________ that induce axons to form collateral sprouts.

Answer 92

Neurotropins

Question 93

T/F: Over several months, the sprouts fill in most vacated synapses can be useful, neutral, or harmful.

Answer 93

True

Question 94

____________ is the heightened sensitivity to a neurotransmitter after the destruction of an incoming axon, can cause chronic pain.

Answer 94

Denervation Supersensitivity

Question 95

_________ is the continuation of sensation of an amputated body part.

Answer 95

Phantom Limb

Question 96

The ______ reorganizes itself after the amputation of a body part by becoming responsive to other parts of the body.

Answer 96

Cortex

Question 97

______________ are limbs that have lost their afferent sensory input.

Answer 97

Deafferentated Limb