chapter 4: approaches in psychology (including biopsychology) Flashcards
(72 cards)
1
Q
How did Wilhelm Wundt help develop psychology?
A
- referred to as the ‘father of psychology’
- opened the first ever lab dedicated to psychological enquiry
- used systematic experiments with standardised instructions
- used introspection
2
Q
What is introspection?
A
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
3
Q
What are the strengths of Wundt’s work?
A
- some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled because procedures were carefully standardised and it was done in controlled environments
4
Q
What are the limitations of Wundt’s work?
A
- other aspects of his research would be considered unscientific today, he relied on subjective data and would not meet the criteria
5
Q
What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
- only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
- it is not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind
- early behaviourists rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to measure
6
Q
What are the two important forms of learning according to behaviourists?
A
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
7
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
- learning through association
- Pavlovian theory states:
unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response
neutral stimulus = no response
unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus = conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus = conditioned response
8
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
- learning through the environment
- positive reinforcement = receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
- negative reinforcement = when you avoid something unpleasant, leading to a positive outcome
- punishment = an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
9
Q
Strengths of the behaviourist approach?
A
- based on well controlled research, focused in the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings
- principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours, like the basis of token economy systems
10
Q
Limitations of the behaviourist approach?
A
- behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process, ignoring the influence of human thought
- it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past experiences, ignoring the influence of free will and conscious decision-making processes on behaviour
11
Q
What are the assumptions of the social learning theory?
A
- people learn through observation and imitation of others
- learning occurs indirectly
12
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement?
A
- reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
- thus the learner observes a behaviour and the consequences
13
Q
What are the four mediational processes?
A
Attention - the extent to which we notice behaviours
Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform
Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour
14
Q
What is identification?
A
- people are more likely to imitate people they identify with
- imitating a role model and the behaviour of a role model is called modelling
- a person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics, attractive, or have high status
15
Q
Strengths of the social learning theory?
A
- recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
- have been applied to range of real world behaviours (can account for how children learn from others around them)
16
Q
Limitations of the social learning theory?
A
- made too little influence of biological factors on social learning, it was believed that learning itself was determined by the environment
- the evidence on which it is based on was gathered through lab studies, whose results can’t be generalised to everyday life
17
Q
What is reciprocal determinism?
A
- the idea that we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an influence on it through the behaviours we choose to perform
- this suggests we have some free will in the way we behave, contrasting with the behaviourist approach
18
Q
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
A
- internal processes can and should be studied scientifically
- it has investigated areas of human behaviour such as memory, perception and thinking
- these processes are private and cannot be observed so they are studied indirectly, through inferences
19
Q
What is the role of schema?
A
- schema is the cognitive processing that can often by affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations
- they are packages of ideas and information developed through experience, acting as the mental framework for incoming information
- schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated with age and provides mental shortcuts to prevent us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
- schema may distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
20
Q
What is the purpose of the theoretical/computer models of the brain?
A
- some suggest that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages
- based on the way that computers function
- useful in the development of thinking machines, or artificial intelligence
21
Q
What is cognitive neuroscience?
A
- the scientific study of how brain structure influences mental processes
- advances in brain imaging techniques allow scientists to observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
22
Q
What are some examples of scanning techniques and how are they helpful?
A
- fMRI
- PET scans
- EEGs
- useful for establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders
23
Q
Strengths of the cognitive approach?
A
- uses objective, scientific methods through the use of lab studies
- practical application, like improving reliability of eyewitness testimonies, treatment of depression
24
Q
Limitations of the cognitive approach?
A
- relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation which can make it too abstract and theoretical in nature. may lack external validity
- based on machine reductionism, ignoring the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system
25
What is soft determinism?
- human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert our own free will, the approach is flexible
26
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
- everything psychological is at first biological so to fully understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures
27
What does it mean by the neurochemistry of behaviour?
- neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain
- an imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder
28
What does it mean by the genetic basis of behaviour?
- twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic bias
- if a characteristic is genetic, we would expect all identical twins to be concordant
29
How does genotype and phenotype link to the biological approach?
- despite having the same genes, the phenotype of identical twins is different which illustrates how much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between nature and nurture
30
Strengths of the biological approach?
- real world application, use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
- uses scientific methods of investigation, highly objective and precise. produces reliable data
31
Limitations of the biological approach?
- such drugs may not work for everyone, suggesting that brain chemistry may not account for all cases of mental disorders
- very determinist, human behaviour is governed by internal genetic causes, simplistic views with ignorance of environmental effects
32
What is the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach?
- unconscious mind is the storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have a significant influence on our behaviour and personality
- unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, or locked away and forgotten.
33
What is the structure of personality?
- id = primitive part of our personality, operates on pleasure principle, unconscious drives and instincts
- ego = mediator between the other two types of personality, operates on reality principle, employs defense mechanisms
- superego = internalised sense of right and wrong, operates on the morality principle, punishes ego for wrongdoing (through guilt)
34
What is a brief description of the psychosexual stages?
- Freudian theory concludes that child development occurs in five stages
- each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to progress successfully
- any unresolved psychosexual conflict will lead to fixation
35
What are the psychosexual stages?
- oral (0-1 years)
- anal (1-3 years)
- phallic (3-6 years)
- latency
- genital
36
What are defence mechanisms?
- unconscious and ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas
- they may often involve some form of distortion of reality
37
What are the three defence mechanisms?
- repression
- displacement
- denial
38
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
- introduces the idea of psychotherapy and psychoanalysis, making it the forerunner to many modern day talking therapies
- its ability to explain human behaviour, it may be controversial but has had a huge influence on psychology, explaining a wide range of phenomena (personality development, psychological disorders, moral development, gender identity)
39
Limitations of the psychodynamic approach?
- psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders
- much of it is untestable, does not meet the criteria of falsification, based on subjective studies
40
What is psychic determinism?
- much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood, believing there is no such thing as an ‘accident’
- very extreme view making the approach less reliable as it dismisses any possible influence of free will
41
What does the humanistic approach say about free will?
- human beings are self determining and have free will
- people are active agents who can determine their own development
42
How did Maslow contribute to humanistic psychology?
- created the hierarchy of needs that motivate our behaviour
- in order to achieve our primary goals of self actualisation, a number of other needs must be met
43
What is the hierarchy of needs?
- physiological needs
- safety/security needs
- love/belongingness
- self esteem
- self-actualisation
44
How did Rogers contribute to humanistic psychology?
- said that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s concept of self must be broadly equivalent to their ideal self.
- if there is too large of a gap, the person will be in incongruence
- Rogers developed clients-centred therapy
45
What does client centred therapies provide?
- unconditional positive regard, which is acceptance for the person and who they are, with no judgement.
- this is for people who may have grown up with conditional positive regard (I will love you if you..)
46
Strengths of humanistic psychology?
- rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components, advocate the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
- very optimistic, promote a positive image of the human condition, humanistic psychologists believe that all people are good and in control of their lives.
47
Limitations of humanistic psychology?
- may be less scientific, too short on empirical evidence to support its claims
- culturally biased, ideas of humanistic psychology are affiliated with more individualist countries, countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise the opposite of the theory, therefore the approach cannot be applied universally
48
What are the two main functions of the nervous system?
- collect, process and respond to information in the environment
- coordinate the working of different organs and cells
49
What are the two subsystems of the nervous system?
- central nervous system
- peripheral nervous system
50
What makes up the CNS?
- brain
- spinal cord
51
Explain the characteristics of the brain.
- centre of all conscious awareness
- covered by the cerebral cortex (outer layer)
- divided into two hemispheres
52
Explain the characteristics of the spinal cord.
- an extension of the brain
- passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- responsible for reflex actions
53
What does the peripheral nervous system do?
- transmits messages, via millions of neurones to and from the central nervous system (CNS)
54
What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?
- autonomic nervous system
- somatic nervous system
55
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
- governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses
56
What does the somatic nervous system do?
- governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
57
Explain the characteristics of the endocrine system.
- works alongside the nervous system
- acts more slowly but has very widespread effects
- various glands produce hormones that are secreted into the bloodstream
58
Explain the steps of how the endocrine system and the ANS work together during a stressful event.
1. stressor is perceived
2. hypothalamus activates pituitary gland which triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of the ANS
3. ANS changes from its normal resting state (parasympathetic state) to the sympathetic state
4. stress hormone, adrenaline, is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream
5. adrenaline triggers physiological changes necessary for the ‘fight or flight’ response
6. once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic state returns the body to rest
59
How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic states work together?
- parasympathetic branch works in opposition to sympathetic branch
- parasympathetic branch acts as a ‘brake’ reducing activities that were increased by the sympathetic branch
60
Name a few indicators of the sympathetic state.
- increased heart rate
- increased breathing rate
- dilation of pupils
- inhibition of digestion
- inhibition of saliva production
- contracts rectum
61
What are the three types of neurones?
- sensory
- relay
- motor
62
What are the characteristics of sensory neurones?
- carry messages from the PNS to the CNS
- long dendrites and short axons
63
What are the characteristics of relay neurones?
- connect the sensory neurones to the motor or other relay neurones
- short dendrites and short axons
64
What are the characteristics of motor neurones?
- connect the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
- short dendrites and long axons
65
List and describe the general structure of a neurone.
- cell body (soma) = includes a nucleus which contains genetic material
- dendrites = protrude from cell body and carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurones to cell body
- axon = carries the impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neurone
- myelin sheath = protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of impulse
- terminal buttons = end of the axon, communicates with the next neurone in the chain across synapse
66
Where are the locations of the cell bodies, sensory, and relay neurones?
- cell bodies = in the CNS but have long axons which form part of the PNS
- sensory neurones = located outside of the CNS, in the PNS in clusters known as ganglia
- relay neurones = make up 97% of all neurones and most are found within the brain and visual system
67
Explain the charges of a neurone at rest.
- inside the neurone = negatively charged
- outside the neurone = less negatively charged
68
Explain the firing of a neurone.
- neurone is activated by stimulus
- inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split second, causing an action potential to occur
- this creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axons towards the end of the neurone
69
Briefly explain synaptic transmission.
- signals within neurones are transmitted electrically
- signals between neurones are transmitted chemically
- when the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neurone (presynaptic terminal), it triggers neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles
70
What are neurotransmitters?
- chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neurone
- taken up by postsynaptic receptor sites on the dendrites of the next neurone
- each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a postsynaptic receptor site
71
Explain excitation and inhibition using examples.
- neurotransmitters either have an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neighbouring neurone
- serotonin = causes inhibition, making neurone more negatively charged (less likely to fire)
- adrenaline = causes excitation, increasing its positive charge (more likely to fire)
72
What is summation?
- whether a postsynaptic neurone fires is decided by summation
- if the net effect on the postsynaptic neurone is inhibitory, it is less likely to fire
- if the net effect is excitatory, it is more likely to fire
