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chapter 6: research methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is the experimental method?

A

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable.

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2
Q

What is the aim?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study.

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3
Q

What is the hypothesis?

A

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

The researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people

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5
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Simply stating that there is a difference between conditions or groups of people

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6
Q

When do researchers use a directional hypothesis?

A

When a theory or the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome

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7
Q

When do researchers use a non-directional hypothesis?

A

When there is no theory or previous research or findings from earlier studies are contradictory.

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8
Q

How would you operationalise variables?

A

By including as much detail in the hypothesis, and clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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9
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Additional, unwanted variables that may affect the dependent variable.

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10
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Type of extraneous variables that make it difficult to understand what affected the dependent variable.

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11
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Any “clue” that the researcher gives may be interpreted by participants as revealing the true nature of the experiment which could change their reaction.

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12
Q

What are the effects that may occur due to demand characteristics?

A

“Please-U effect’ = acting in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter.
“Screw-u effect’ = deliberately under-performing to sabotage the results of the study

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13
Q

What is the investigator effect?

A

When the researcher unknowingly provides an unwanted influence on the research outcome.

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14
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Using chance methods to reduce the researcher’s unconscious biases when designing an investigation.

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15
Q

What is standardisation?

A

All participants should be subject to the same environment, information and experience

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16
Q

What is experimental design?

A

How participants are arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions

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17
Q

What is independent group design?

A

When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions.

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18
Q

Evaluate the independent groups design.

A

Less economical than repeated measures
Increases the time/money spent on recruiting participants.
Order effects are not a problem.

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19
Q

What is random allocation and when is it best used?

A

Participants should be randomly allocated to different experimental conditions
Used in the independent groups design.

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20
Q

What is the repeated measures design?

A

All participants experience both conditions of the experiment.

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21
Q

Evaluate the repeated measures design.

A

Order effects arise
Repeating tasks can cause boredom
Participant variables are controlled

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22
Q

What is counterbalancing and when is it best used?

A

An attempt to control order effects, half the participants take part in condition A then B, and the other half B, then A.
Best used in the repeated measures design.

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23
Q

What is the matched pairs design?

A

Participants are paired together on variables relevant to the experiment

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24
Q

Evaluate the matched pairs design.

A

Participants can never be matched exactly.

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25
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment conducted in highly controlled environments.
26
Pros and cons of laboratory experiments?
- high control over confounding and extraneous variables - High internal validity - replication is more possible. - may lack generalisability - low external validity - low mundane realism
27
What is a field experiment?
When the IV in an experiment is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting.
28
Pros and cons for field experiments?
- higher mundane realism - behaviour is more valid and authentic - high external validity - loss of control over CVs and EVs - precise replication is not possible - important ethical issues
29
What is a natural experiment?
When the researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it
30
Pros and cons of natural experiments?
- Provides opportunities for research -High external validity - participants cannot be randomly allocated - may lack realism
31
What is a quasi experiment?
When the IV is based on an existing difference between people
32
Pros and cons for quasi experiments?
- Often carried out under controlled conditions - cannot randomly allocate participants - IV is not deliberately changed
33
What is random sampling?
A sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
34
Evaluate random sampling.
- Potentially unbiased (confounding and extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups). - difficult and time-consuming - May end up with unrepresentative samples.
35
What is systematic sampling?
When every nth member of the target population is selected.
36
Evaluate systematic sampling
- The method is objective - may be time-consuming
37
What is stratified sampling?
A sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in subgroups.
38
Evaluate stratified sampling.
- Produces a representative sample where generalisation is possible
39
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting anyone who is willing and available
40
Evaluate opportunity sampling
- Convenient but unrepresentative - researcher bias
41
What are ethical issues?
Issues that arise when a conflict or dilemma exists between participants' rights and researchers' needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings.
42
What is informed consent?
It involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights, and also what their data will be used for.
43
How to apply informed consent?
Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.
44
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. Deception CAN be justified if it does not cause the participant undue distress.
45
How to avoid deception?
At the end of the study, participants should be given a full debrief of the aims of the investigation and any details that they were not supplied with.
46
What is protection from harm?
Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm.
47
How to adhere to protection from harm?
Participants should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw and the right to withhold data.
48
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Confidentiality refers to our right to have any personal data protected, extending to the area where the study took place.
49
How to apply privacy and confidentiality?
Maintain anonymity, using number or initials in the study.
50
What is the BPS?
A set of ethical guidelines, attempting to ensure all participants are treated with respect and consideration.
51
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation - involves a handful of participants, in order to "road-test" the procedure.
52
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants are unaware of the test being conducted but the researcher is aware.
53
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants are unaware of the test being conducted but the researcher is aware.
54
Why would a psychologist conduct a single-blind procedure?
Any information that might create expectations is not revealed until the end of the study to control for confounding effects of demand characteristics.
55
What is a double-blind procedure?
Neither the participants nor the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the aims of the investigation.
56
Why would a psychologist conduct a double-blind procedure?
If they both don't know what each participant is receiving then expectations cannot influence participant benaviour.
57
What is a naturalistic observation?
An observation that takes place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur.
58
Evaluate naturalistic observations.
- High external validity - difficult to replicate
59
What are controlled observations?
Observations where you watch and record behaviour within a structured environment, controlling confounding/extraneous variables
60
Evaluate controlled observations.
- replication is easier - cannot be applied to everyday life
61
What are covert observations?
Observations where the participants are unaware they are the focus of the study.
62
Evaluate covert observations.
- No demand characteristics - Ethnically questionable - increases internal validity
63
What are overt observations?
When participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given their informed consent.
64
Evaluate overt observations.
- more ethically accepted - demand characteristics increase
65
What are participant observations?
When the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being recorded.
66
Evaluate participant observations.
- May increase external validity - lose objectivity
67
What are non-participant observations?
When the researcher remains outside of the group.
68
Evaluate non-participant observations.
- maintain an objective psychological distance - you may lose insight
69
What are unstructured observations?
When the researcher simply writes down everything they see.
70
Why and when would a psychologist use unstructured observations?
- Because they produce accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail -Appropriate when the observations are small in scale and involve a few participants.
71
What are structured observations?
When you simplify the target behaviour that will become the main focus of the investigation, behavioural categories are used
72
What are behavioural categories?
Categorising target behaviours that need to be studied, they should be precisely defined, made observable and measurable.
73
Evaluate behavioural categories?
Makes data collection more structured and objective
74
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group.
75
Evaluate event sampling.
If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details
76
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
77
Evaluate time sampling.
The behaviour sampled might be unrepresentative
78
What are open questions?
Questions that do not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
79
Evaluate open questions.
- Since the data is qualitative, results may be too difficult to analyse - provides key insight and depth however
80
What are closed questions?
Questions where there are a fixed number of responses
81
Evaluate closed questions.
- easy to analyse since data is quantitative - lack depth
82
What are structured interviews?
Pre-determined set of questions asked in a fixed order
83
Evaluate structured interviews.
- reduces differences between interviewers - can limit the richness of the data
84
What are unstructured interviews?
Works like a conversation, with no set questions
85
Evaluate unstructured interviews.
- more flexibility - may lead to an increased risk of interviewer bias - interviewees may lie
86
What are semi-structured interviews?
There are a list of questions but interviewers may ask follow ups
87
Evaluate questionnaires.
- cost effective - can gather large amounts of data quickly - straightforward to analyse - can be completed without the researcher being present - responses given may not always be truthful
88
What are likert scales?
The respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale of usually five points
89
What are rating scales?
Respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic
90
What is a correlation?
Illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two or more co-variables
91
What is a positive correlation?
As one co-variable increases so does the other
92
What is a negative correlation?
As one co-variable increases the other decreases
93
What is a zero correlation?
When there is no relationship between the co-variables
94
What are the strengths of correlations?
- useful preliminary tool - provide a precise and quantifiable measure of variables and their relationship - often used as a starting point to asses possible patterns between variables - relatively quick and economical
95
What are the limitations of correlations?
- studies can only tell us how variables are related, not why - can be occasionally misused or misinterpreted
96
Evaluate qualitative data.
- offers more richness of detail - broader in scope - greater external validity - difficult to analyse - conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher
97
Evaluate quantitative data.
- relatively simple to analyse - objective and less open to bias - much narrower in meaning and detail
98
What is primary data?
Original data that has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher
99
Evaluate primary data.
- authentic data - requires time and effort
100
What is secondary data?
Data that already exists before the psychologist begins their research
101
Evaluate secondary data.
- inexpensive and easily accessed - may have substantial variation in quality and accuracy
102
What is peer review?
When all aspects of the written investigation is scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts
103
What are the main aims of peer review?
- allocate research funding - to validate the quality and relevance of research - to suggest amendments or improvements
104
What should all peer reviews be?
- anonymous - no publication bias
105
Why should peer reviews be anonymous?
To protect the peer reviewers from any backlash but to also remove any barriers to allow honest feedback. However, anonymity should not be used to criticise rivals
106
Why should there be no publication bias during peer reviews?
Some reviewers may discredit work if it doesn't meet a certain criteria or agenda
107
What may affect the publishing of certain researches?
Findings that chime with current opinion may be more likely to be chosen which can slow down the rate of change in scientific discipline.

psychology (4 decks)

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