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PSY100 > Chapter 4 Biology > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Phrenology

A

Study of shape and size of the brain; it was believed that this indicated someone’s personality

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2
Q

What idea do early phrenologists and contemporary psychologists share?

A

Behavioral functions are localized to certain areas of the brain

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3
Q

What is reductionism?

A

The idea that you can explain something in terms of individual, smaller parts

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4
Q

Who criticized reductionism?

A

Anderson

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5
Q

What is the neuroscientific method of spatial resolution?

A

A method of analyzing the brain that gives you information about where the activity is occurring.

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6
Q

What is temporal resolution?

A

A neuroscientific method that tells you the precise timing of activity in the brain

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7
Q

What is an example of temporal resolution?

A

Electroencepathology (EEG)

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8
Q

How does fMRI work?

A

Place participants in the machine, and it detects changes in cerebral blood flow

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9
Q

What do neurons need when they are active?

A

Rapid delivery of blood and nutrients

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10
Q

What is the hemodynamic response?

A

The rapid delivery of blood and nutrients to active neurons

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11
Q

What does an EEG do?

A

Electrodes are placed on the scalp of the research participant, and the electrical activity of the brain is recorded

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12
Q

Patient George experienced ___ while listening to the James Bond theme

A

An intense sensory-emotional response

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13
Q

What methods were used to compare Patient George’s brain activity to the control group’s brain activity?

A

an fMRI machine

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14
Q

What were some key differences between Patient George’s brain activity and the brain activity of the control group?

A

Patient George experienced greater neural activation in the auditory cortex, somatosensory cortex, motor cortex, thalamus, hippocampus, and particular regions of the insula, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex

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15
Q

What were one of the main conclusions about why Patient George was experiencing such intense emotions while listening to the music?

A

The song activated areas of his brain that are associated with intense emotional arousal.

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16
Q

The biology of the mind involves

A

Intricate, overlapping patterns of activity

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17
Q

What happens inside the cell body?

A

Most of the housekeeping, e.g. protein manufacture

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18
Q

Grey areas of the brain indicate a high density of

A

cell bodies

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19
Q

White areas of the brain indicate a high density of

A

axons

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20
Q

What is found on the axon terminal?

A

Synaptic vesicles

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21
Q

What is found inside synaptic vesicles?

A

Chemical messengers called neurotransmitters

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22
Q

Myelin is formed by

A

Glia

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23
Q

In the CNS and PNS, there are different types of __ that form myelin

A

Glia

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24
Q

Where are action potentials generated?

A

In a cell’s axon

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25
Q

Where do action potentials travel once they are initiated?

A

Along the axon to the axon terminal

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26
Q

What is the resting potential?

A

The potential difference between the interior of the cell (intracellular fluid) and the exterior of the cell (extracellular fluid) when the cell is at rest

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27
Q

When a cell is at rest, it is ___ charged with respect to the exterior

A

Negatively

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28
Q

What does depolarization mean?

A

When the potential difference between the interior of the cell and the exterior of the cell is decreasing

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29
Q

What does hyperpolarization mean?

A

When the potential difference between the interior of the cell and the exterior of the cell is increasing

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30
Q

What happens after hyperpolarization?

A

The opening and closing of pores and channels may lead to the production of an action potential

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31
Q

A nearby cell is more likely to produce an action potential if it is

A

Depolarized

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32
Q

What are the steps after depolarization of a cell?

A

1) Sodium channels open, causing positively charged ions to rush in.
2) Close to the action potential, potassium channels open, causing positively charged ions to leave the cell
3) The sodium channels close
4) The potassium channels close

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33
Q

Compare how action potentials occur in an unmyelinated axon vs a myelinated axon

A

Unmyelinated: action potentials occur step-by-step
Myelinated: action potentials are only produced at the nodes of Ranvier

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34
Q

Why does it take longer for a signal to travel when the axons are unmyelinated?

A

Because the process has to occur step-by-step, and myelinated axons can “skip” the sections covered by myelin

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35
Q

The more action potential it takes to move a signal down the length of the axon, the more ___ expended in returning the cell to its resting state.

A

Energy

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36
Q

What are beta blockers?

A

Antagonists that block certain receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine

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37
Q

What are the effects of beta blockers?

A

Because they block receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine, they weaken the effects of the sympathetic stress response

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38
Q

When a neurotransmitter has an excitatory effect, it

A

Slightly depolarizes the receiving neuron

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39
Q

When a neurotransmitter has an inhibitory effect, it

A

Slightly hyperpolarizes the receiving neuron

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40
Q

What is the function of acetylcholine?

A

Found in many important systems important to behavior

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41
Q

What junction is acetylcholine typically found in?

A

Neuromuscular junction

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42
Q

Interference with the action of this neurotransmitter can result in paralysis or death

A

Acetylcholine

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43
Q

Pesticides have drugs that interfere with the action of this neurotransmitter

A

Acetylcholine

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44
Q

This neurotransmitter plays an important role in the autonomic nervous system and carries commands from the brain to the organs

A

Acetylcholine

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45
Q

This neurotransmitter is involved in circuits relating to learning and memory

A

Acetylcholine

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46
Q

The activity of this neurotransmitter leads to arousal and vigilance

A

Norephinephrine

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47
Q

Norepinephrine is also released by the

A

Sympathetic nervous system

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48
Q

Abnormalities in norepinephrine activity lead to disturbances in

A

Arousal and vigilance, leading to bipolar disorder and PTSD

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49
Q

Dopamine is involved in systems that control

A

Planning, reward, and movement

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50
Q

Dopamine is activated whenever we participate in

A

Behaviors that promote survival and successful reproduction

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51
Q

Disruptions to dopamine circuits have been implicated in

A

Schizophrenia and ADHD

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52
Q

This neurotransmitter is involved in systems controlling mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite.

A

Serotonin

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53
Q

Endorphins stand for

A

Endogenous morphine

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54
Q

What do endorphins do

A

Modify the body’s natural response to pain

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55
Q

Why does runner’s high occur?

A

Because the body releases endorphins

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56
Q

Our bodies treat opioids as if they were

A

Natural endorphins

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57
Q

Membranes underneath the spinal vertebrae and skull

A

Meninges

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58
Q

Clear, plasma-like fluid that protects the brain and spinal cord

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

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59
Q

Lining of hollow spaces in the brain where CSF flows out of

A

Ventricles

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60
Q

Why are ventricles important? Name two reasons

A

1) They prevent damage due to minor concussions
2) They provide cushioning and prevent false signals due to neurons touching each other

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61
Q

What is a spinal tap?

A

When some of the CSF is moved for a medical diagnosis

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62
Q

Many important reflexes are initiated by the __ without any assistance from the brain

A

Spinal cord

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63
Q

Sensory neurons relay

A

Information from the body and the external environment to the central nervous system

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64
Q

Motor neurons relay

A

Information from the central nervous system to the muscles

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65
Q

These neurons provide a bridge between the motor neurons and the sensory neurons

A

Interneurons

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66
Q

Early in prenatal development, the brain develops __ bulges

A

3

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67
Q

Name the bulges formed in prenatal development

A

The cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem

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68
Q

What are the three structures in the brainstem?

A

Pons, midbrain, and medulla

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69
Q

What is the function of the pons?

A

Sleep, arousal, facial expressions

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70
Q

This structure in the brainstem connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

A

Pons

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71
Q

This structure in the brainstem contains large bundles of nerve fibres

A

Medulla

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72
Q

This structure in the brainstem manages heart rate, breathing, blood pressure

A

Medulla

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73
Q

This structure in the brainstem controls sensory reflexes, movement, and pain

A

Midbrain

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74
Q

Maintains balance and motor coordination

A

Cerebellum

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75
Q

One of the first structures in the brain to be affected by alcohol

A

Cerebellum

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76
Q

Contains more nerve cells than the rest of the brain combined

A

Cerebellum

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77
Q

Connected to the rest of the CNS

A

Cerebellum

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78
Q

The cerebellum is believed to have a broader role in

A

Making mental and motor skills more automatic

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79
Q

What is the reticular formation

A

Collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem that participate in mood, arousal and sleep

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80
Q

Two settings of the reticular formation

A

Fast and slow

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81
Q

When the reticular formation is in the fast setting, an individual…

A

Shows signs of being awake

82
Q

When the reticular formation is in the slow setting, an individual

A

Will enter deep sleep or unconsciousness

83
Q

Make up the bulk of the cerebral hemispheres

A

Subcortical structures

84
Q

Subcortical structures are involved in

A

Learning, emotion, movement, communication, inhibition of impulses, regulation of body states

85
Q

Subcortical structures are actually

A

Paired sets of structures, one on either side of the brain

86
Q

The thalamus is the

A

Gateway to the cortex

87
Q

Most sensory information travels through here first and then is relayed to the cerebral cortex

A

Thalamus

88
Q

The thalamus is also involved in

A

Memory and states of consciousness.

89
Q

The basal ganglia are involved with

A

Voluntary movement

90
Q

These curve around to hug the thalamus

A

Basal ganglia

91
Q

Basal ganglia form

A

Complex circuits with motor structures located in the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebral cortex

92
Q

What is an example of a structure included in the basal ganglia

A

Nucleus accumbens

93
Q

Socially connected people show an active

A

Nucleus accumbens

94
Q

Included in the subcortical structures; play an important role in the brain’s reward and pleasure circuitry

A

Nucleus accumbens

95
Q

Subcortical structure involved with motivation and homeostasis

A

Hypothalamus

96
Q

Subcortical structure that regulates body functions such as temperature, thirst, hunger, biological rhythms, sexual activities

A

Hypothalamus

97
Q

4 F’s of the hypothalamus

A

Feeding, fleeing, fornication, fighting

98
Q

Subcortical structure that achieves motivational and homeostatic tasks by directing the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system

A

Hypothalamus

99
Q

Damage to the hippocampus results in

A

The inability to form new memories

100
Q

Damage to the hippocampus does not result in

A

The loss of intelligence, personality, and most memories of events that occurred before hippocampal damage

101
Q

Subcortical structure that forms a fold of tissue on the inner surface of each cerebral hemisphere

A

Cingulate cortex

102
Q

Two parts of the cingulate cortex

A

ACC and PCC

103
Q

ACC

A

Controls the autonomic nervous system

104
Q

PCC

A

Rear end of the cingulate cortex, participates in memory/visual processing

105
Q

Shape of amygdala

A

Almond

106
Q

Subcortical structure that receives sensory information

A

Amygdala

107
Q

Subcortical structure that produces emotional/motivational output that is sent to the cerebral cortex

A

Amygdala

108
Q

Subcortical structure that identifies, remembers, and responds to fear and aggression

A

Amygdala

109
Q

A greater response to fear indicates more activity in this subcortical structure

A

Amygdala

110
Q

Monkeys with a damaged amygdala

A

Approach humans fearlessly

111
Q

Research indicates that people who harm others without feeling guilt might have a

A

Damaged amygdala, because they are unable to recognize fear in other people

112
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres

113
Q

Wide band of nerve fibres connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres

A

Corpus callosum

114
Q

What is stored in the frontal lobe?

A

Primary motor cortex

115
Q

How many lobes can the cerebral cortex be divided into?

A

4

116
Q

The primary motor cortex is located

A

at the rear end of the frontal lobe

117
Q

What is Broca’s area

A

A part of the brain located next to the frontal lobe that is involved in speech production

118
Q

A patient finds that they are able to understand speech, but they are unable to talk. They likely have damage to

A

Broca’s area

119
Q

The prefrontal cortex primarily controls

A

Decision-making, planning, judgement, and attention

120
Q

Youth and adolescents’ irrational decisions may be attributed to lack of development of their

A

prefrontal cortex

121
Q

ADHD and schizophrenia may result from abnormalities in the activity in this lobe

A

Frontal lobe

122
Q

What is alien hand syndrome?

A

When the body cannot recognise one of the limbs as its own and the limbs seemingly have their own mind

123
Q

Alien hand syndrome is the result of damage to

A

the frontal lobes

124
Q

Why would damage to the frontal lobe lead to alien hand syndrome?

A

Because the frontal lobes are involved in the planning of behavior

125
Q

Describe what happened to Phineas Gage

A

During an accident, a rod went straight through his head and he survived, but his personality was altered

126
Q

Which areas of the brain did the rod miss during Phineas Gage’s accident?

A

the ones involved in speech production (Broca’s area) and voluntary movement

127
Q

What was Phineas Gage still able to do after the accident?

A

Talk and move on his own

128
Q

What is frontal lobotomy

A

When physicians deliberately damaged the frontal lobes of patients to try and reduce their fear and anxiety

129
Q

The orbifrontal cortex is part of

A

The prefrontal cortex

130
Q

Where is the orbifrontal cortex located and what cortex is it part of?

A

Just behind the bony orbits protecting the eyes; prefrontal cortex

131
Q

This cortex plays an important role in our emotions

A

Orbifrontal cortex

132
Q

People who find it difficult to manage their emotions, retain their intelligence, and show reductions in their ability to learn and pay attention may have a damaged

A

Orbifrontal cortex

133
Q

Describe what happened to patient EVR

A

His orbifrontal cortex was damaged. He divorced his wife, and found it difficult to make everyday decisions, such as what to buy at the store

134
Q

What is antisocial personality disorder

A

When people are unable to recognise that others have feelings and emotions as well

135
Q

Someone who has about 11% less prefrontal cortex volume may have

A

antisocial personality disorder

136
Q

People with antisocial personality disorder, along with disregarding others, may also have difficulty

A

Delaying gratification

137
Q

What is the occipital lobe

A

One of the four lobes of the brain that is home to the primary visual cortex

138
Q

Where is the occipital lobe located

A

At the back of the brain

139
Q

What does the primary visual cortex do?

A

Respond to basic information about an image

140
Q

This cortex interprets input from the eyes, including borders, shading, colors, and movement

A

Primary visual cortex

141
Q

A pathway connecting the occipital lobe with this lobe allows you to recognise objects that you see

A

Temporal

142
Q

The pathway connecting these two lobes allows you to recognise the images that you see

A

occipital; temporal

143
Q

The pathway that connects the occipital lobe with the parietal lobe allows you to

A

See the movement of objects

144
Q

The temporal lobe is home to the

A

Primary auditory cortex

145
Q

This cortex allows you to process incoming sounds

A

Primary auditory cortex

146
Q

Along with processing incoming sounds, the primary auditory cortex also

A

Helps you recognise objects and faces of familiar people

147
Q

Someone who is unable to recognise a loved one by sight likely suffers damage to

A

Their temporal lobe

148
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Concerned with the comprehension of speech

149
Q

This person can speak fluently but they are incomprehensible. They likely suffer damage to

A

Wernicke’s area

150
Q

The parietal lobe houses

A

the primary somatosensory cortex

151
Q

The primary somatosensory cortex helps us

A

localize touch, pain, skin temperature, and body position

152
Q

Someone who suffers from damage to their primary somatosensory cortex has difficulty

A

Perceiving part of their body or part of the visual field

153
Q

Someone has difficulty detecting the feeling of someone else’s hand touching theirs. Their ___ cortex is likely damaged

A

Primary somatosensory

154
Q

Mirror neurons provide a mechanism for

A

Understanding the actions of others

155
Q

Mirror systems in humans help us understand

A

The actions, emotions, and intentions of others

156
Q

This person is paralyzed on the right side of their body. This means that they likely have damage to the __ hemisphere of their brain

A

Left

157
Q

Lateralization is a special kind of

A

Localization of functions

158
Q

The split-brain procedure was an attempt to

A

Reduce seizures

159
Q

The split-brain procedure involves

A

Cutting the corpus collosum and other pathways connecting the left and right hemispheres

160
Q

Undergoing the split-brain procedure does not change

A

Personality, intelligence, or speech

161
Q

The lateralization of language is correlated with a person’s

A

Handedness

162
Q

Nearly all right-handed people

A

Lateralize language to the left hemisphere

163
Q

Other cognitive processes that show evidence of lateralization include

A

Mathematical computation, spatial intuition/visual arts, emotional behavior

164
Q

A patient whose left hemisphere was anesthetized resulted in feelings of depression because

A

Emotional behavior shows signs of lateralization, and activity in the left hemisphere is correlated with positive emotions

165
Q

Hemisphere dominance is measured by

A

The relative size of the hemispheres and the localization of language and handedness

166
Q

Occupational choice or artistic talent, contrary to popular belief, cannot be predicted by

A

Hemisphere dominance

167
Q

It is speculated that one of the primary functions of lateralization is to

A

Provide organisms with the ability to multitask

168
Q

One of the advantages of lateralization in species is that it may lead to

A

social cohesion

169
Q

List a disadvantage of lateralization

A

Has made us more susceptible to schizophrenia

170
Q

People with ___ show abnormal hemisphere lateralization

A

schizophrenia

171
Q

Schizophrenic patients are more likely to

A

Be left-handed or to have ambiguous handedness

172
Q

the PNS consists of the

A

Somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

173
Q

The somatic nervous system is concerned with

A

Voluntary movement

174
Q

How does the somatic nervous system aid in voluntary movement?

A

It transmits commands from the CNS to the muscles and brings sensory input back to the CNS for further processing

175
Q

The somatic nervous system consists of

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves serving the torso and limbs and 12 pairs of cranial nerves serving the head, neck, and some internal organs

176
Q

The autonomic nervous system controls tissues other than the

A

Skeletal muscle

177
Q

List the three subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system

A

The sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system

178
Q

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to

A

Expend energy

179
Q

The parasympathetic nervous system directs

A

the storage of energy

180
Q

Gut feelings are a result of the

A

Enteric nervous system

181
Q

The second brain

A

Enteric nervous system

182
Q

The enteric nervous system

A

Consists of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system

183
Q

This subdivision of the autonomic nervous system contains as many nerve cells as are found in the spinal cord

A

Enteric nervous system

184
Q

The enteric nervous system communicates with the and ensures

A

Endocrine system; the release of chemicals essential to digestion

185
Q

Hunger and gastrointestinal pain are a result of

A

the enteric nervous system

186
Q

Disturbances of the enteric environment might contribute to the development of

A

autism spectrum disorder

187
Q

Primary chemical messenger of the endocrine system

A

Hormone

188
Q

The endocrine system is involved in

A

Arousal, metabolism, and growth

189
Q

The pineal gland controls

A

Sleep-wake cycles

190
Q

The pituitary gland is located

A

Just above the roof of the mouth

191
Q

The body’s master gland

A

Pituitary gland

192
Q

Many hormones released in this gland activate other glands

A

Pituitary gland

193
Q

The pituitary gland lies directly below the

A

hypothalamus

194
Q

The __ regulates the pituitary gland

A

Hypothalamus

195
Q

Oxytocin and vasopressin are involved in

A

Breastfeeding and maintenance of fluid levels

196
Q

The growth hormone stimulates

A

growth and regeneration

197
Q

The second group of pituitary hormones

A

Influences the release of hormones by other glands

198
Q

What does the thyroid gland do

A

Raise or lower the rate of metabolism

199
Q

What is metabolism

A

The chemical processes that the body needs to sustain life

200
Q

Cortisol is released by __ and provides a

A

the adrenal gland; a general “wake up call”

201
Q

What do the islets of Langerhans produce

A

hormones essential to digestion

202
Q

Insulin is produced

A

in the islets of Langerhans

PSY100 (13 decks)

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