Chapter 4- Cognition Consciousness And Language

Question 1

Dual coding theory

Answer 1

The theory that both verbal Association of visual images are used to process and store information

Question 2

What are the four stages of Piaget stages of cognitive development

Answer 2

Sensorimotor (birth-2): Key milestone and sensorimotor stage of the development of object permanence

Preoperational (2-7) Characterized by symbolic thinking egocentrism and centration

Concrete operational (7-11) Children understand conservation, consider the perspective of others are able to think logically as long as they are working with concrete objects or information have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly

Formal operational (11+) Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas

Question 3

Schema

Answer 3

A concept, behavior, or sequence of events that helps organize new information

Question 4

What is adaptation and what are the two complementary processes

Answer 4

A way to process new information.

Assimilation: the process of classifying new information into existing schemata.

Accommodation: the process by which existing schema are modified to encompass new information

Question 5

Circular Reactions

Answer 5

Primary circular reactions are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance

Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulation is focused on something else outside of the body

Occurs during the first stage (sensorimotor) of piagets stages of cognitive development

Question 6

Object permanence

Answer 6

 The key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage. The ability to understand objects continue to exist even went out of view.

Question 7

Symbolic thinking

Answer 7

The ability to play make-believe and exercise imagination

Key part of the preoperational stage of cognitive development

Question 8

Egocentrism

Answer 8

 The inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

Question 9

Centration

Answer 9

The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon.

Example number versus size of slices of pizza

Question 10

Fluid intelligence

Answer 10

Problem solving skills

Peaks in early adulthood

Question 11

Crystallized intelligence

Answer 11

Use of a learned skill or knowledge. Peaks in middle adulthood

Question 12

Delirium

Answer 12

A rapid fluctuation and cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes such as electrolyte and pH disturbance malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal

Question 13

Functional fixedness

Answer 13

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Question 14

What are four different approaches to problem-solving?

Answer 14

Trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning

Question 15

Trial and error

Answer 15

A less sophisticated type of problem solving often used when there are relatively few possible solutions. Trying various solutions until one is found this seems to work.

Question 16

Algorithms

Answer 16

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Can be either mathematical or a set of instructions designed to automatically produce the desired solution.

Question 17

Deductive reasoning

Answer 17

Also known as top-down reasoning.

Start from a general set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.

General ➡️ Specific

Question 18

Inductive reasoning

Answer 18

Bottom-up reasoning

Creating a theory based on generalizations start with specifics and then draw a conclusion.

Detailed➡️General

Question 19

Heuristics

Answer 19

Simplified principles used to make a decisions also known as rules of thumb

Question 20

Availability heuristic

Answer 20

Making decision based on how easily similar instances it can be imagined.

Question 21

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 21

Estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds.

Question 22

Base rate fallacy

Answer 22

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Question 23

Confirmation bias

Answer 23

The tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them.

Question 24

Belief perseverance

Answer 24

The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Question 25

Recognition prime decision model

Answer 25

Intuition. Sorting through a wider variety of information to match a pattern

Question 26

What brain structures are involved in the state of alertness

Answer 26

The prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain communicating with the reticular formation in the brain stem. Brain the injury that results in disruption of these connections results in a coma.

Question 27

In the sleep stages a complete cycle last how many minutes?

Answer 27

90

Question 28

Beta waves

Answer 28

High frequency. When a person is alert and complaining at mental task that requires concentration.

Question 29

Alpha waves

Answer 29

Occur when an individual is awake but relaxing with their eyes closed alpha waves are slower and more synchronized than beta waves.

Question 30

Stage one of the sleep cycle is characterized by which waves

Answer 30

Stage one of the sleep cycle is characterized by theta waves.

Question 31

Stage two of the sleep cycle is characterized by what type of waves?

Answer 31

Theta waves as well as sleep spindles and K complexes

Question 32

What stages of the sleep cycle are characterized as slow wave sleep?

Answer 32

Stages three and four

Question 33

What are characteristics of stages three and four of the sleep cycle? What waves are associated with stages three and four?

Answer 33

Harder to wake someone from their sleep. Low frequency, high voltage waves called delta waves. Cognitive recovery and memory consolidation growth hormone release.

Question 34

What is REM sleep? What EEG waves are associated with rem sleep?

Answer 34

Mostly beta waves Rapid eye movement sleep. Interspersed between the cycles of NREM sleep stages. When dreaming occurs. Also known as paradoxical sleep because heart rate breathing patterns and EEG mimic wakefulness but the individual still asleep.

Question 35

Procedural memory consolidation is associated with what part of the sleep cycle. Declarative memory consolidation is associated with what part of the sleep cycle

Answer 35

Procedural:REM Declarative:SWS (stages 3 and 4)

Question 36

Daily sleep wake cycle is regulated by what?

Answer 36

Internally generated circadian rhythms.

Question 37

What hormone is associated with regulation of sleepiness? Connection to the retina

Answer 37

Melatonin from the pineal gland. The retina is connected to the hypothalamus which controls the pineal gland thus decreasing light can cause the release of melatonin

Question 38

What role does cortisol play in the sleep wake cycle?

Answer 38

Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex. Cortisol level slowly increase during the early morning due to a series of events triggered by light that eventually stimulates cortisol release.

Question 39

Dyssomnias versus parasomnias

Answer 39

Dyssomnia’s make it difficult for an individual to fall asleep stay asleep or avoid sleep including insomnia, narcolepsy and sleep apnea. Parasomnias or abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleepwalking.

Question 40

Most sleep wake disorders occur during non-REM sleep or REM sleep?

Answer 40

NREM

Question 41

Insomnia

Answer 41

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

Question 42

Narcolepsy

Answer 42

Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep Includes cataplexy loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours usually caused by emotional trigger

Question 43

Sleep paralysis

Answer 43

A sensation of being unable to move despite being awake

Question 44

Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

Answer 44

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

Question 45

Sleep apnea

Answer 45

An inability to breathe during sleep. Can either be obstructive or central obstructive sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow. Central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.

Question 46

Night Terrors

Answer 46

Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow wave sleep

Question 47

Sleepwalking or somnambulism

Answer 47

Occurs during SWS. Walking eating talking having sexual intercourse or driving great distances while sleeping with no recollection of the event

Question 48

Hypnosis

Answer 48

A state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state

Question 49

Meditation

Answer 49

Quieting the mind for some purpose whether spiritual religious or for counseling or psychotherapy because it produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worry Resemble stage one sleep with data and slow alpha waves

Question 50

What EEG waves are associated with being awake

Answer 50

Beta and alpha

Question 51

Depressant

Answer 51

Reduce nervous system activity resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety. Alcohol is the most common.

Question 52

Alcohol

Answer 52

A type of depressant. Increases dopamine levels which caused mild sense of euphoria.

Question 53

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

Answer 53

Anxiety reducing and sleep medication Increase GABA of relaxation. Benzodiazepines are less prone to overdose.

Question 54

Stimulants

Answer 54

Cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system. Examples include amphetamines and cocaine and ecstasy

Question 55

Amphetamines

Answer 55

Cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake

Question 56

Cocaine

Answer 56

Decreases reuptake of dopamine norepinephrine and serotonin. Has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties.

Question 57

Ecstasy

Answer 57

Acts as a hallucinogen as well as an amphetamine. Causes increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating nausea and hypothermia. Causes feelings of euphoria increased alertness and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

Question 58

Opiates/Opiods

Answer 58

Bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system causing a decrease reaction to pain in a sense of euphoria A number of drugs derived from opiates include morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin

Question 59

Heroin

Answer 59

Also known as diacetylmorphine originally created as a substitute for morphine. Once injected the body metabolizes heroin into morphine.

Question 60

Hallucinogens Examples? How does it exert its effects?

Answer 60

Include drugs such as LSD, ketamine, mescaline, ecstasy, psilocybin. Exert their effects through a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters especially serotonin. Distort Reality and fantasy enhancement of sensory experiences. 

Question 61

Marijuana Inhibits what? Increases what? Active chemical? Has what physiological effect?

Answer 61

The active chemical in marijuana THC inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity causing pleasure. Physiological effects include redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, lower blood pressure psychologically it falls into the category of stimulant depressant hallucinogen.

Question 62

Selective attention

Answer 62

Focusing on one part of the sensorium about ignoring other stimuli

Question 63

Controlled vs Automatic Processing

Answer 63

Newer complex tasks that require undivided attention versus familiar routine tasks

Question 64

What are the five basic components of language

Answer 64

``` phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics ```

Question 65

Phonology

Answer 65

The actual sound of language

Question 66

Morphology

Answer 66

Structure of words Building blocks of words re- design- -ed

Question 67

Semantics

Answer 67

The association of meaning with a word

Question 68

Syntax

Answer 68

Putting words together to form sentences

Question 69

Pragmatics

Answer 69

Dependence of language and context on pre-existing knowledge How you word things may be determined by how well you know someone.

Question 70

Prosody

Answer 70

The rhythm cadence and inflection of our voices

Question 71

Timeline of language acquisition

Answer 71

``` 9-12 months- Babbling 12-18 months- one word per month 18-20 months- explosion of language and combining words 2 to 3 years- longer sentences 3+ words 5 years- language rules largely mastered ```

Question 72

Nativist (Biological) Theory

Answer 72

The existence of some innate capacity for language

Question 73

Language acquisition

Answer 73

Innate ability, a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

Question 74

Critical Period

Answer 74

Necessary age range for optimal language development. Thought to be between two years of age of puberty. If no language exposure occurs at the same litter training is largely ineffective

Question 75

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

Answer 75

Explains language acquisition by operate conditioning. Parents and take a picture pee and reinforce sounds that sounds like language spoken by the parents overtime and fat perceive certain sounds a little value and they’re not reinforced what other sounds of value in a reliable reinforced by parents and caregivers

Question 76

Social Interactionist Theory

Answer 76

Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by the child desire to communicate and behave in a social manner. 

Question 77

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Answer 77

The way that we think about the world is determined by the content of language. Language affects the way we think rather than the other way around.

Question 78

Brocas vs Wernicke’s area

Answer 78

Both located in the dominant hemisphere (usually the left hemisphere) Brocas: Located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe controls the motor function of speech Wernickes: Located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension

Question 79

What structure connects the Wernickes and Broca’s areas?

Answer 79

Arcurate Fasiculus

Question 80

Aphasia

Answer 80

Deficit of language production or comprehension

Question 81

Brocas aphasia

Answer 81

Absent ability to produce spoken language Aka expressive aphasia

Question 82

Wernickes aphasia

Answer 82

Motor production and fluency is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. These patients speak nonsensical sounds an inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning.

Question 83

Conduction Aphasia

Answer 83

When the connection between the Brocas and wernickes area of the brain is impaired speech production and comprehension are intact but the patient is unable to repeat something that has been said.