Chapter 4: Learning

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

• A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
• Can occur intentionally or unintentionally

Question 2

Behaviourist approach to learning

Answer 2

• Learning via interactions with stimuli in the environment
• E.g. classical and operant conditioning

Question 3

Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 3

• Three-phase learning process (before, during and after)
• Involves associating neutral and unconditioned stimuli to produce a conditioned response
• Occurs through repeated association of different stimuli

NOTE: Classical conditioning is sometimes called respondent conditioning.

Question 4

Stimulus vs response

Answer 4

• Stimulus – object / event that elicits a response
  
  • E.g. the sound of a gun shot, the smell of food
• Response – reaction by an organism to a stimulus
  
  • E.g. wincing, salivating, blinking, vomiting

Question 5

NS, UCS, CS, UCR and CR

Classical conditioning

Answer 5

• NS – does not normally produce a predictable response
  
  • Not learned (e.g. bell causes no natural response)
• UCS – produces a naturally occurring, automatic response
  
  • Not learned (e.g. food causes salivation)
• CS – initially N but becomes associated w/ UCS & elicits CR
  
  • Learned (e.g. bell becomes associated with food and causes salivation)
• UCR – occurs automatically when the UCS is presented
  
  • Not learned (e.g. salivating due to food)
• CR – learned / acquired response to the CS
  
  • Learned (e.g. salivating due to bell)

Question 6

Factors that influence classical conditioning

Answer 6

• Nature of the response
  
  • UCR must be an automatic / involuntary response
  • Not necessarily ‘thoughtless’ (responses can be ancipatory or due to an expected event)
• Association or linking of stimuli
  
  • No association between stimuli = no conditioning
  • Association is due to contiguity (linking stimuli that occur close together in time and/or space)
• Timing of the NS and UCS pairing
  
  • Must present NS before UCS in close succession (not more than half a second before)

Question 7

Three stages of classical conditioning

Answer 7

• Phase 1: Before conditioning
  
  • NS elicits no relevant response (bell → no salivation)
  • UCS elicits UCR (food → salivation)
• Phase 2: During conditioning
  
  • NS repeatedly paired with UCS to produce UCR
  • Pairing occurs many times in close succession
  • NS must come before UCS
  • E.g. bell + food → salivation
• Phase 3: After conditioning
  
  • NS becomes a CS
  • CS produces CR (bell alone → salivation)

Must specify WHAT causes the response (e.g. salivation to food OR bell).

NOTE: To gain full marks, answers must include these three stages with reference to the specific details in the question.

Question 8

Why are negative stimuli (e.g. an electric shock) effective in establishing avoidance responses to formerly neutral stimuli?

Answer 8

• Produce a reflexive fear response & initiates emotional learning via amygdala (creates strong association w NS)
• Learning occurs fast if UCS relates to survival (e.g. pain)

Question 9

Operant conditioning

B. F. Skinner

Answer 9

• Consequences of voluntary behaviour determine how likely it is to be repeated in the future
• I.e. an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour that has desirable consequences and not repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences

Question 10

Operant

Answer 10

• Any response (or set of responses) that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence

Question 11

Three stages of operant conditioning

Answer 11

• Antecedent (A) – stim that occurs before the behaviour
  
  • Allows us to predict likely consequence of behaviour
  • E.g. the word ‘Men’ on a toilet door
• Behaviour (B) – behaviour that occurs due to antecedent
  
  • E.g. entering if male
• Consequence (C) – what happens after the behaviour
  
  • E.g. emptying a full bladder

NOTE: Antecedents (aka discriminative stimuli) tend to be general and do not directly produce the response.

Question 12

Reinforcement

Answer 12

• A process whereby a stimulus increases the likelihood of repeating a desirable behaviour in the future
• Only used after the desired or correct response is made
• Can be positive or negative

Question 13

Positive vs negative reinforcement

Answer 13

• Positive – addition of a pleasant stimulus
  
  • E.g. praising a student (+) for contributing in class
• Negative – removal of an unpleasant stimulus
  
  • E.g. driving within the speed limit to avoid fines (–)

NOTE: Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of repeating a desired (good) behaviour in the future.

Question 14

Punishment

Answer 14

• A process whereby a stimulus decreases the likelihood of repeating an undesired behaviour in the future

Question 15

Positive vs negative punishment

Answer 15

• Positive – addition of an unpleasant stimulus
  
  • E.g. being given extra chores (+) / time-out (+) due to poor behaviour
• Negative – removal of a pleasant stimulus
  
  • E.g. loss of money (–) to a fine due to speeding

NOTE: Both positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood of repeating an undesired (bad) behaviour in the future.

Question 16

Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment (OTA)

Answer 16

• Order of presentation
  
  • Reinforcement / punishment occurs after behaviour
  • Allow us to associate a consequence w/ a behaviour
• Timing
  
  • Most effective when reinforcement / punishment occurs immediately after response has occurred
  • Delayed conseq to behaviour = slow / no learning
• Appropriateness
  
  • Reinforcers must be pleasant for specific recipient
  • Punishers must be unpleasant for specific recipient

Question 17

Stimulus generalisation and discrimination

Operant conditioning

Answer 17

• Generalisation – behaviour applied to a different stimulus, hoping to receive the same consequence
  
  • E.g. doing well on a Biology exam after studying hard, so doing the same for other subjects
• Discrimination – behaviour only occurs in response to the original stimulus
  
  • E.g. working hard in one subject but not others

Question 18

Classical vs operant conditioning

Answer 18

• Role of the learner
  
  • C – passive (no control over presentation of stimuli)
  • O – active (control over behaviour)
• Timing of the stimulus and response
  
  • C – response depends on stimulus occurring first
  • O – reinforcement/punishment depends on the behaviour occurring first
• Nature of the response
  
  • C – involuntary (usually reflexive/automatic)
  • O – voluntary (consciously initiated)

Question 19

Similarities between classical and operant conditioning

Answer 19

• Three-phase model
  
  • Before, during and after conditioning & ABC
• Not necessarily permanent
  
  • I.e. extinction can occur
• Require the association between different stimuli

Question 20

Extinction

Answer 20

• Learned responses ≠ permanent (can be lost)
• True for both classical and operant conditioning

NOTE: Details about extinction are not examinable.

Question 21

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 21

• The reappearance of the CR at the presentation of the CS after extinction and a rest period
• Can occur multiple times, but never as strong as the og CR

Question 22

Positive reinforcers vs rewards

Answer 22

• Similarity – both have satisfying / desirable consequence
• Difference – rewards are not reinforcers unless they promote behaviour, whereas reinforcers are both rewarding and promote behaviour

Question 23

Social-cognitive approach to learning

Albert Bandura

Answer 23

• Emphasises the social context & cognitive processes that influence the person and the learning process
• Demonstrates that learning can involve being conditioned by observing someone else’s conditioning

Question 24

Observational learning

Social-cognitive learning

Answer 24

• Acquisition of info, skills or behaviour through watching the performance of others (directly or indirectly)

Question 25

Observational learning process

Answer 25

- **Attention** – actively watch / observe the model's behaviour - We tend to pay more attention when the model is attractive, successful, familiar or similar to ourselves - **Retention** – storing a mental representation, in memory, of the model's behaviour - More meaningul mental representation = more accurate replication - **Reproduction** – imitating the observed behaviour - Must have the required physical/mental abilities - **Motivation** – determination to reproduce the behaviour - Must want to reproduce the behaviour - Explain WHY depending on the question - **Reinforcement** – makes the learner more likely to repeat the behaviour in the future - Likely to repeat behaviour if it has 👍🏻 outcome | Importance / relevance of social context is, at times, awarded a mark. ## Footnote TIP: ARRMR = A Rabbit Ruined My Racecar.

Question 26

2 types of motivation

Answer 26

- **Intrinsic** – **within** an individual - E.g. personal desire to perform well on an exam - **Extrinsic** – factors **external** to the individual - E.g. desire to receive praise from a teacher

Question 27

3 types of reinforcement

Answer 27

- **Self** – meeting the standards we set for ourselves - E.g. a sense of pride or achievement - **External** – consequences of actions - E.g. receiving an award - **Vicarious** – observing the reinforcement of another person performing the same behaviour - E.g. witnessing one being praised for working hard

Question 28

Differences between observational learning and classical conditioning

Answer 28

- **OL** – **active learner** (must actively observe a model) - **CC** – involves a **passive learner** - **OL** – **5 step** process of **learning from someone else** - **CC** – **3 step** process of **individual learning**

Question 29

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learning

Answer 29

- **Oldest & longest continuing forms of learning** in Aus - Learning is **embedded in relationships** - Between learner-teacher - Between concepts - Between individuals-families-communities-Country - Humans are interconnected w/ each other, the past, ancestors and the natural world - System is **multi-modal** (variety of methods) - Narratives, song, dance and ceremony - 8 ways of learning framework - Knowledge is **patterned on Country** - Country holds and teaches knowledge - Landscape, itself, is a mnemonic

Question 30

Country | ATSI learning

Answer 30

- Term used to describe the **land, waterways and seas** - Encompasses spirituality, customs, law, place, language, cultural practice, family and identity

Question 31

8 ways of learning framework

Answer 31

- Story sharing - Symbols and images - Non-verbal - Non-linear - Learning maps - Land links - Community links - Deconstruct/reconstruct

Question 32

Differences between western learning and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learning

Answer 32

- ATSI **combines aspects of day to day life and teaching** for learning; western tends to seperate these aspects (e.g. science seperate from art) - ATSI is multimodal; western is predominantly written