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research methods I > chapter 4/week 4 > Flashcards

chapter 4/week 4 Flashcards

approaches to psychological measurement (59 cards)

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1
Q

Approaches to Psychological Measurement

A

Observational approaches
Physiological approaches
Self-report approaches
Archival approaches

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2
Q

Observational Methods

A

research involving the direct observation of human or non-human behavior

Three decisions to make:
Will the observation occur in a natural or contrived setting?
Will the participants know they are being observed?
How will the participants’ behavior be recorded?

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3
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

observation of ongoing behavior as it occurs naturally with no intrusion or intervention by the researcher

Researchers observe people or animals in their natural environment and record their behavior

Participation observation

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4
Q

participation observation

A

one type of naturalistic observation; research engages in the same activities as the people he or she is observing

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5
Q

Contrived observation

A

behavior is observed in settings that are arranged specifically for observing and recording behavior

Most take place in the laboratory; however, some researchers set up situations outside of the laboratory to observe people’s reactions

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6
Q

Undisguised observation

A

when the individuals who are being studied know that the researcher is observing their behavior

Reactivity

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7
Q

reactivity

A

when participants act differently because they know they are being observed

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8
Q

Disguised observation

A

when researchers conceal the fact that they are observing and recording participants’ behavior

Raises ethical issues

Informed consent

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9
Q

informed consent

A

the practice of informing participants regarding the nature of their participation in a study and obtaining their written consent to participate

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10
Q

Should participants know that they are being observed?

A

Problem with disguised observation:
May violate right of informed consent
Potential violation of privacy

Problem with undisguised observation:
Reactivity

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11
Q

Ways to minimize reactivity:

A

partial concealment
knowledgeable informants
unobtrusive measures

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12
Q

partial concealment

A

allow participants to know that they are being observed but do not tell them what specific aspects of behavior are being observed

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13
Q

knowledgeable informants

A

get people who know the participants well to observe and rate their behavior

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14
Q

unobtrusive measures

A

use indirect measures that can be taken without the participants knowing they are being studied

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15
Q

Techniques used to observe and record behavioral data (4)

A

narrative records
checklists
temporal measures
rating scales

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16
Q

narrative records

A

full description of a participant’s behavior
(Piaget used this type of recording when studying his children’s behavior)

unstructured; Everything the person said and did during a specified period of time

Field notes

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17
Q

field notes

A

Include summary descriptions of the participant’s behaviors but do not attempt to record every behavior

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18
Q

checklists

A

Structured

Researcher records attributes of the participants (sex, age, and race) and whether particular behaviors were observed

must formulate` cellar operational definitions

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19
Q

Temporal measures

A

latency
- reaction time
- task completion time
- interbehavior latency
(duration)

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20
Q

latency

A

the amount of time elapsed between a particular event and a behavior; or between two behaviors (see examples below)

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21
Q

reaction time

A

the time that elapses between the presentation of a stimulus and the participant’s response (e.g., IAT)

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22
Q

task completion time

A

the length of time it takes participants to solve a problem or complete a task (e.g., puzzles)

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23
Q

Interbehavior latency

A

the time that elapses between two behaviors (e.g., multiple stimulus habituation studies)

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24
Q

duration

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A

how long a particular behavior lasted

Ex: how long people talk during a conversation; how long people engage in eye contact

25
(observational) rating scales
Researcher rates the quality or intensity of participants’ behavior Ex: rates the degree to which a participant working on a difficult task appears to be frustrated, relaxed, and happy on 5-point scales (1=not at all, and 5=extremely) Ex: rating a child’s crying as (a) slight, (b) moderate, or (c) extreme
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Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods
Researchers must have clear and precise operational definitions for all behaviors that will be observed and recorded Raters should practice using the coding system by comparing and discussion their practice ratings This is the place where you use interrater agreement level as an indicator of interrater reliability
27
Neuroscience
a broad, interdisciplinary field that studies biochemical, anatomical, physiological genetic, and developmental processes involving the nervous system - Cognitive, affective, and behavioral neuroscientists focus both on physiological processes and psychological phenomena
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Psychophysiological/Neuroscientific measures
a measure that assesses processes occurring in the brain or other parts of the nervous system
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Commonly used psychophysiological and neuroscientific measures
measures of neural electrical activity neuroimaging measures of autonomic nervous system activity blood and saliva assays precise measurement of overt reactions
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Measures of neural electrical activity
EEG - brain waves EMG – electrical activity in muscles (index of physiological activity related to emotion, stress, reflexes, etc)
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Neuroimaging
Brain imaging fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) – head is placed in an fMRI chamber, which exposes the brain to a strong magnetic field and low power radio waves
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Measures of autonomic nervous system activity
Heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, skin temperature, electrodermal response
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Blood and saliva assays
Hormones released in response to stress; cortisol
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Precise measurement of overt reactions
special sensors, facial EMG (for muscles nerves)
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Questionnaires
participants respond by writing answers or indicating which of several responses they endorse Require less extensive training, can be answered online Most common method of self-report measurement
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Single-item measures
intended to be analyzed by themselves
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Multi-item scale
a set of questionnaire or interview items designed to be combined and used as a measure of a single variable
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how to find existing questionnaires
Search the research literature (i.e., journal articles) Consult books that contain and critically evaluate measures Find databases that describe measures purchase from commercial publishers
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important things to do with questionnaires
Be specific and precise Use simple, straightforward language Avoid assumptions Key idea should follow conditional information Do not use double-barreled questions
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Response format
the manner in which the respondent indicates his or her answer to the item Free response Rating scale response Multiple choice or fixed alternative response
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Free response
Open-ended item Participant provides an unstructured response Drawbacks: force the respondent to figure out the kind of response that the researcher desires as well as how extensive the answer should be and if verbal, the answers must be coded before they can be statistically analyzed
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Rating scale response
Participants rate the intensity or frequency of their behaviors, thoughts, or feelings Ex: rate how tired you feel right now; how anxious do you feel right now; I am an outgoing person
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Multiple choice or fixed-alternative response
Participants choose one of several possible answers on a questionnaire or interview Fixed-alternative ex – true/false Multiple choice/true or false Ex: what is your attitude toward abortion Ex: disapprove under all circumstances; approve only under special circumstances, such as when the woman’s life is in danger; approve whenever a woman wants one
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Experience sampling methods (ESM)
participants report on what they are thinking and feeling right now - diary methods - computerized experience sampling
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Diary methods
participants keep a daily record o information pertinent to the researcher’s questions
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Computerized experience sampling
participants carry small units that are programmed to ask them specific question throughout the day
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Interviews
participants response orally to an interviewer interview schedule structured interviews semi-structured interviews
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interview schedule
the series of questions that is used in an interview
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structured interviews
follow the protocol and the interviewer’s role is to simply ask the questions as they are worded
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Semi-structured interviews
gives more freedom to the interviewer to focus on general topic without strict guidelines about a set of questions
51
How to make interviews more effective?
- Create a friendly atmosphere - Order the sections of the interview to facilitate building rapport and to create a logical sequence - Conceal personal reactions to the respondent’s answers - Ask questions exactly as they are worded if you are conducting structured interviews - Don’t lead to respondent
52
Biases in Self-Reports
Social Desirability Response Bias Acquiescence Response Style Nay-saying Response Style
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Social Desirability Response Bias
the tendency to answer questions in a socially acceptable way
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Acquiescence Response Style
the tendency to agree with statements, regardless of content
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Nay-saying Response Style
the tendency to disagree with statements, regardless of content
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Archival Data
In archival research, researchers work with existing data, such as census data, court records, personal letters, old newspapers, etc.
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Archival data is very useful for studying:
Social and psychological phenomena of the past Social and behavioral changes over time Topics that involve articles, advertisements, or speeches Anything that must be studied after it has occurred
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Content Analysis
a set of procedures to convert textual information to more relevant, manageable data The goal is to classify words, phrases, or other units of text into a limited number of meaningful categories
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Steps to Content Analysis
Must classify or rate the text 1. Classification into mutually exclusive categories - E.g., introvert vs extravert 2. Rating each unit on some specified dimensions - E.g., rate each behavior on a 5 point Likert scale: 1 = non helpful; 5 = helpful Rates code the textual material for all participants to establish interrater reliability

research methods I (6 decks)

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