Chapter 5 Flashcards by Andrew Young

Although conventional X-ray photography is not useful
for visualizing the brain, contrast X-ray techniques are.
____ ____ _____ involve injecting into one compartment of the body a substance that absorbs X-rays either
less than or more than the surrounding tissue. The injected
substance then heightens the contrast between the compartment and the surrounding tissue during X-ray photography.

Contrast X-ray techniques

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One contrast X-ray technique, ____ _____,
uses the infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a cerebral
artery to visualize the cerebral circulatory system during
X-ray photography (see Figure 5.1).
____ _____ are most useful for
localizing vascular damage, but the displacement of
blood vessels from their normal
position also can indicate the location of a tumor.

cerebral angiography, Cerebral angiograms

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In the early 1970s, the study of the
living human brain was revolutionized  by  the  introduction  of computed  tomography. \_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_ is  a  computer assisted X-ray procedure that can be
used to visualize the brain and other
internal  structures  of the  living
body.

Computed

tomography (CT)

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The success of computed tomography stimulated the development of other techniques for obtaining images of the
inside of the living body. Among these techniques is
____ _____ _____ a procedure in
which high-resolution images are constructed from the
measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when
they are activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic
field.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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In addition to providing relatively high ___ ____ (the ability to detect and represent differences in
spatial location), MRI can produce images in three dimensions.

spatial resolution

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____ ____ ____ was the first brain imaging technique to provide images of brain activity
(functional brain images) rather than images of brain structure (structural brain images).

Positron emission tomography (PET)

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In one common version of
PET, radioactive _______ is injected into the
patient s carotid artery (an artery of the neck that feeds
the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere). Because of its similarity to glucose, the primary metabolic fuel of the brain,
_____ is rapidly taken up by active (energyconsuming) cells. However, unlike glucose, ______
cannot be metabolized; it therefore accumulates in active
neurons or in associated astrocytes

2-deoxyglucose (2-DG)

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____ _____ produce images representing
the increase in oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of
the brain. ____ _____ is possible because of two attributes of oxygenated blood (see Raichle & Mintun,
2006). First, active areas of the brain take up more oxygenated blood than they need for their energy requirements, and thus oxygenated blood accumulates in active
areas of the brain. Second, oxygenated blood has magnetic properties (oxygen influences the effect of magnetic
fields on iron in the blood).

Functional MRI (fMRI)

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The signal recorded by

fMRI is called the ____ _____ (the blood-oxygen-level dependent signal).

BOLD signal

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Another technique that is used to monitor the brain activity of human subjects is magnetoencephalography
(MEG). MEG measures changes in magnetic fields on the
surface of the scalp that are produced by changes in underlying patterns of neural activity. Its major advantage
over fMRI is its ____ ______; it can record fast
changes in neural activity.

temporal resolution

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_____ _____ ______ is a technique for affecting the activity in an area of the cortex by
creating a magnetic field under a coil positioned next to
the skull

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a measure of the gross
electrical activity of the brain. It is recorded through
large electrodes by a device called an electroencephalograph
(EEG machine), and the technique is called ______.

electroencephalography

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For example, ____ _____ are regular, 8- to 12-per-second, high-amplitude waves that are associated with relaxed
wakefulness.

alpha waves

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Psychophysiologists are often more interested in the
EEG waves that accompany certain psychological events
than they are in the background EEG signal. These accompanying EEG waves are generally referred to as ___ _____ _____.

event related potentials (ERPs)

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One commonly studied type
of event-related potential is the ____ _____
potential the change in the cortical EEG signal that is
elicited by the momentary presentation of a sensory stimulus.

sensory evoked

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A  method  used  to  reduce  the
noise  of the  background  EEG  is
\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_. First, a subject s
response to a stimulus, such as a
click, is recorded many let s say
1,000 times.

signal averaging

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The analysis of average evoked potentials (AEPs) focuses on the various waves in the averaged signal. Each
wave is characterized by its direction, positive or negative, and by its latency. For example, the ____ ____ illustrated in Figure 5.10 is the positive wave that occurs
about 300 milliseconds after a momentary stimulus that
has meaning for the subject (e.g., a stimulus to which
the subject must respond)

P300 wave

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In contrast, the portions of an evoked
potential recorded in the first few milliseconds after a
stimulus are not influenced by the meaning of the stimulus for the subject. These small waves are called _____ _____ because, although they are recorded
from the scalp, they originate far away in the sensory nuclei of the brain stem.

farfield potentials

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_______ is the usual procedure for measuring muscle tension. The resulting record is called an
______ (EMG). EMG activity is usually recorded
between two electrodes taped to the surface of the skin
over the muscle of interest.

Electromyographym, electromyogram

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The electrophysiological technique for recording eye movements is called ______, and the resulting record
is called an ______

electrooculography, electrooculogram (EOG).

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Emotional thoughts and experiences are associated with increases in the ability of the skin to conduct electricity. The
two most commonly employed indexes of electrodermal activity are the ___ ____ ____ (SCL) and the ___ ____ ____ (SCR). The SCL is a measure of the
background level of skin conductance that is associated
with a particular situation, whereas the SCR is a measure of
the transient changes in skin conductance that are associated with discrete experiences.

skin conductance level
skin
conductance response

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The electrical signal that is associated
with each heartbeat can be recorded through electrodes
placed on the chest. The recording is called an ______ (abbreviated either ECG, for obvious reasons, or EKG, from the original German).

electrocardiogram

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A chronic blood pressure of more than
140/90 mmHg is viewed as a serious health hazard and is
called _______.

hypertension

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_________
refers to the various techniques for measuring changes in
the volume of blood in a particular part of the body

Plethysmography

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The ____ _____ is used to locate brain structures in much the same way that a geographic atlas is used to locate geographic landmarks. There is, however, one important difference. In contrast to the surface of the earth, which has only two dimensions, the brain has three.

stereotaxic atlas

Accordingly, the brain is represented in a stereotaxic atlas by a series of individual maps, one per page, each representing the structure of a single, two-dimensional frontal brain slice. In stereotaxic atlases, all distances are given in millimeters from a designated reference point. In some rat atlases, the reference point is _____ the point on the top of the skull where two of the major sutures (seams in the skull) intersect.

bregma

The ____ ______ has two parts: a head holder, which firmly holds each subject s brain in the prescribed position and orientation; and an electrode holder, which holds the device to be inserted. A system of precision gears allows the electrode holder to be moved in three dimensions: anterior posterior, dorsal ventral, and lateral medial.

stereotaxic instrument

When a lesion is to be made in an area of cortical tissue that is accessible to the eyes and instruments of the surgeon, ______ is frequently the method of choice.

aspiration

An alternative to destructive lesions is ____ _____. When coolant is pumped through an implanted cryoprobe, such as the one depicted in Figure 5.16, neurons near the tip are cooled until they stop firing. The temperature is maintained above the freezing level, so there is no structural damage. Then, when the tissue is allowed to warm up, normal neural activity returns

cryogenic blockade

In most psychopharmacological experiments, drugs are | administered in one of the following ways:

(1) They are fed to the subject; (2) they are injected through a tube into the stomach (intragastrically); or (3) they are injected hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen (intraperitoneally, IP), into a large muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the fatty tissue beneath the skin (subcutaneously, SC), or into a large surface vein (intravenously, IV).

A problem with these peripheral routes of administration is that many drugs do not readily pass through the blood brain barrier. To overcome this problem, drugs can be administered in small amounts through a fine, hollow tube, called a ______, that has been stereotaxically implanted in the brain.

cannula

The effects of surgical, electrolytic, and cryogenic lesions are frequently difficult to interpret because they affect all neurons in the target area. In some cases, it is possible to make more selective lesions by injecting _______ (neural poisons) that have an affinity for certain components of the nervous system.

neurotoxins

The 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique entails placing an animal that has been injected with radioactive 2-DG in a test situation in which it engages in the activity of interest. Because 2-DG is similar in structure to glucose the brain s main source of energy neurons active during the test absorb it at a high rate but do not metabolize it. Then the subject is killed, and its brain is removed and sliced. The slices are then subjected to ______; they are coated with a photographic emulsion, stored in the dark for a few days, and then developed much like film.

autoradiography

____ _____ is a method of measuring the extracellular concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving animals (see Robinson & Justice, 1991) most other techniques for measuring neurochemicals require that the animals be killed so that tissue can be extracted.

Cerebral dialysis

_________ is a procedure for locating particular neuroproteins in the brain by labeling their antibodies with a dye or radioactive element and then exposing slices of brain tissue to the labeled antibodies. Regions of dye or radioactivity accumulation in the brain slices mark the locations of the target neuroprotein.

Immunocytochemistry

``` Another technique for locating peptides and other proteins in the brain is __ ____ _______. This technique takes advantage of the fact that all peptides and proteins are transcribed from sequences of nucleotide bases on strands of messenger RNA ```

in situ | hybridization

___ knockout techniques are procedures for creating organisms that lack a particular gene under investigation (see Eisener-Dorman, Lawrence, & Bolivar, 2008). Mice (the favored mammalian subjects of genetic research) that are the products of ____ knockout techniques are referred to as knockout mice.

Gene

It is now possible to replace one gene with another. ___ ____ ____ have created interesting possibilities for research and therapy. Pathological genes from human cells can be inserted in other animals such as mice mice that contain the genetic material of another species are called ____ ____.

Gene replacement techniques transgenic mice

____ ____ ____ is a protein that exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to blue light. First isolated by Shimomura, Johnson, and Saiga (1962), from a species of jellyfish found off the west coast of North America, GFP is currently stimulating advances in many fields of biological research.

Green fluorescent protein (GFP)

Livet and colleagues took the very useful GFP technique one step further one big step. First, Tsien (1998) found that making minor alterations to the GFP gene resulted in the synthesis of proteins that fluoresced in different colors. Livet and colleagues (2007) then introduced the mutated genes for cyan, yellow, and blue fluorescent proteins into the genomes of developing mice in such a way that they were expressed in developing neurons. Each neuron produced different amounts of the three proteins, giving it a distinctive color in the same way that a color printer can make any color by mixing only three colored inks in differing proportions. Because each neuron was labeled with its own distinctive color, the pathways of neural axons could be traced to their destinations through the cellular morass. This technique has been dubbed ______ for obvious reasons

brainbow

A single set of procedures developed for the investigation of a particular behavioral phenomenon is commonly referred to as a behavioral paradigm. Each ____ _____ normally comprises a method for producing the behavioral phenomenon under investigation and a method for objectively measuring it.

behavioral | paradigm

Many neuropsychological assessments begin with the ___ ____ ____ ____, first published in 1955 and standardized in 1981 on a sample of 1,880 U.S. citizens between 16 and 71. The WAIS is often the first test because knowing a patient s IQ can help a neuropsychologist interpret the results of subsequent tests.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence | Scale (WAIS)

One weakness of the WAIS is that it often fails to detect memory deficits, despite including subtests specifically designed to test memory function. For example, the information subtest of the WAIS assesses memory for general knowledge (e.g., Who is Queen Elizabeth? ), and the ____ ____ subtest (the most widely used test of short-term memory) identifies the longest sequence of random digits that a patient can repeat correctly 50% of the time; most people have a ____ ____ of 7.

digit span

If a neuropsychological patient has taken the WAIS, deficits in the use of language can be inferred from a low aggregate score on the verbal subtests. A patient who has not taken the WAIS can be quickly screened for language-related deficits with the _____ test.

token

The ____ ____ test involves injecting the anesthetic ____ _____ into either the left or right carotid artery in the neck. This temporarily anesthetizes the ipsilateral (same-side) hemisphere while leaving the contralateral (opposite-side) hemisphere largely unaffected.

sodium amytal

In the standard version of the ____ ____ ____, sequences of spoken digits are presented to subjects through stereo headphones. Three digits are presented to one ear at the same time that three different digits are presented to the other ear. Then the subjects are asked to report as many of the six digits as they can.

dichotic listening test

Many amnesic patients display severe deficits in explicit memory with no deficits at all in implicit memory (Curran & Schacter, 1997). ____ _____ tests have proven instrumental in the assessment and study of this pattern. Patients are first shown a list of words and asked to study them; they are not asked to remember them. Then, at a later time, they are asked to complete a list of word fragments, many of which are fragments of words from the initial list. For example, if purple had been in the initial test, pu_p_ _ could be one of the test word fragments.

Repetition priming

Injuries to the frontal lobes are common, and the __ ___ ___ ___ (see Figure 5.23) is a component of many customized test batteries because performance on it is sensitive to frontal-lobe damage (see Eling, Derckx, & Maes, 2008). On each Wisconsin card is either one symbol or two, three, or four identical symbols. The symbols are all either triangles, stars, circles, or crosses; and they are all either red, green, yellow, or blue.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

____ _____ is predicated on two related assumptions. The first premise is that each complex cognitive process results from the combined activity of simple cognitive processes called constituent cognitive processes. The second premise is that each constituent cognitive process is mediated by neural activity in a particular area of the brain. One of the main goals of ____ _____ is to identify the parts of the brain that mediate various constituent cognitive processes.

Cognitive neuroscience

With the central role played by PET and fMRI in cutting edge cognitive neuroscience research, the ____-___ _____ technique has become one of the key behavioral research methods in such research

paired-image | subtraction

Interpretation of difference images is complicated by the fact that there is substantial brain activity when human subjects sit quietly and let their minds wander this level of activity has been termed the brain s ____ ____

default mode

The brain structures that are typically active in the default mode are collectively referred to as the default mode _____

network

___-____ _____ are those that are displayed by virtually all members of a species, or at least by all those of the same age and sex.

Species-common behaviors

In the ____-____ ____, the subject is placed in a large, barren chamber, and its activity is recorded (see Brooks & Dunnett, 2009). It is usual to measure general activity either with an automated activity recorder or by drawing lines on the floor of the chamber and counting the number of line-crossings during the test.

open-field test

Low activity scores and high bolus counts are frequently used as indicators of fearfulness. Fearful rats are highly ______; that is, they rarely venture away from the walls of the test chamber and rarely engage in such activities as rearing and grooming.

thigmotaxic

Typical patterns of aggressive and defensive behavior can be observed and measured during combative encounters between the dominant male rat of an established colony and a smaller male intruder (see Blanchard & Blanchard, 1988). This is called the ____-____ ______. The behaviors of the dominant male are considered to be aggressive and those of the hapless intruder defensive. The dominant male of the colony (the alpha male) moves sideways toward the intruder, with its hair erect. When it nears the intruder, it tries to push the intruder off balance and to deliver bites to its back and flanks.

colony-intruder paradigm

The ____ ____ maze, a four-armed, plus-sign-shaped maze that is typically mounted 50 centimeters above the floor, is a test of defensiveness that is commonly used to study in rats the anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects of drugs.

elevated plus

If the female is receptive, she responds by assuming the posture called _____; that is, she sticks her hindquarters in the air, she bends her back in a U, and she deflects her tail to the side.

lordosis

During some mounts, the male inserts his penis into the | female s vagina; this act is called ______. After _____, the male dismounts by jumping backwards.

intromission

Following about 10 such cycles of mounting, intromitting, and dismounting, the male mounts, intromits, and _____

ejaculates

Three common measures of male rat sexual behavior are the number of mounts required to achieve intromission, the number of intromissions required to achieve ejaculation, and the interval between ejaculation and the reinitiation of mounting. The most common measure of female rat sexual behavior is the _____ _____

lordosis quotient

If you have taken a previous course in psychology, you will likely be familiar with the Pavlovian and operant conditioning paradigms. In the ___ ____ _____, the experimenter pairs an initially neutral stimulus called a conditional stimulus (e.g., a tone or a light) with an unconditional stimulus (e.g., meat powder) a stimulus that elicits an unconditional (reflexive) response (e.g., salivation).

Pavlovian conditioning paradigm

In the ____ ____ _____, the rate at which a particular voluntary response (such as a lever press) is emitted is increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment.

operant conditioning paradigm

In the ____-_____ paradigm, animals press a lever to deliver electrical stimulation to particular sites in their own brains;

self-stimulation

A ____ ____ ____ is the avoidance response that develops to tastes of food whose consumption has been followed by illness

conditioned taste | aversion

Designed by Olton and Samuelson (1976) to study these spatial abilities, the ___ ____ maze (see Figure 5.26) is an array of arms usually eight or more radiating from a central starting area. At the end of each arm is a food cup, which may or may not be baited, depending on the purpose of the experiment. In one version of the radial arm maze para

radial arm

Another seminatural learning paradigm that has been designed to study the spatial abilities of rats is the ___ ____ _____. The rats are placed in a circular, featureless pool of cool milky water, in which they must swim until they discover the escape platform which is invisible just beneath the surface of the water.

Morris water maze (Morris, 1981)

In studies of ____ _____ _____, rats receive a single aversive stimulus (e.g., a shock, air blast, or noxious odor) from an object mounted on the wall of the chamber just above the floor, which is littered with bedding material. After a single trial, almost every rat learns that the test object is a threat and responds by flinging bedding material at the test object with its head and forepaws

conditioned defensive burying