Chapter 5 Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Non-associative learning
A
When organism is repeatedly exposed to stimulus
Habitual or sensitization
2
Q
Habit
A
Action performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
3
Q
Dishabituation
A
Previously habituated stimulus is removed
4
Q
Sensitization
A
Increase in responsiveness due to repeated stimulus or particularly noxious stimulus
5
Q
Desensitization
A
Stimulus that previously evoked strong response does not provoke such strong response anymore
6
Q
Associative learning
A
One event, object, or action is directly connected with another
Classical or operative
7
Q
Classical conditioning
A
Two stimuli are paired in such a way that a response to one of the stimuli changes
Pavlov’s dogs
8
Q
Neutral stimulus
A
Does not initially elicit intrinsic response
9
Q
Unconditioned stimulus
A
Stimulus that elicits unconditioned response
10
Q
Conditioned stimulus
A
Originally neutral, but paired with unconditioned to produce conditioned response
11
Q
Conditioned response
A
Learned response to the conditioned stimulus
12
Q
Acquisition
A
Process of learning conditioned response
13
Q
Extinction
A
Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired - conditional response eventually stops occuring
14
Q
Spontaneous recovery
A
Extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimuli is presented after some period of time
15
Q
Generalization
A
When stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response
16
Q
Discrimination
A
Opposite of generalization
When conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimulus
17
Q
Taste-aversion
A
Long-lasting association in people and animals
Caused by nausea and vomiting
18
Q
Operant conditioning
A
Reinforcement and punishment
19
Q
Reinforcement
A
Anything that will increase the likelihood that preceding behaviour will be repeated
20
Q
Positive reinforcement
A
Some sort of desirable stimulus occurs immediately following a behaviour
21
Q
Negative reinforcement
A
Some sort of undesirable stimulus occurs immediately following a behaviour
22
Q
Primary reinforcers
A
Reinforcers that are somehow innately satisfying or desirable
ie. food, avoiding pain
23
Q
Secondary reinforcers
A
Things that are learned to be reinforcers
Neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned
24
Q
Reinforcement schedule
A
Operant conditioning requires a schedule
Continuous: actions are reinforced
Intermittent: actions are reinforced or not
25
Continuous reinforcement
Actions are reinforced quickly but quickly extinct
26
Intermittent reinforcement
Actions are either reinforced or not
But kept longer than continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, variable-ratio
27
Fixed-ratio schedule
Provides reinforcement after set number of instances of behaviour
28
Variable-ratio schedule
Provides reinforcement after unpredictable number of occurrences
29
Fixed-interval schedule
Provides reinforcement after set period of time that is constant
30
Variable-interval schedule
Provides reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time
31
Positive punishment
Behaviour is followed by consequence
32
Negative punishment
Behaviour is followed by removal of desired stimulus
33
Escape
Individual learns to get away from averse stimulus by engaging in a particular behaviour
34
Avoidance
Person performs behaviour to ensure an averse stimulus is not presented
35
Behaviourism
All psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviours and its consequences
36
Cognitive psychology
Focus on the brain, cognitions, and their effects on how we navigate the world
37
Insight learning
When previously learned behaviours are combined in unique ways
38
Latent learning
Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behaviour until it is required
39
Short-term memory
Lasts seconds to hours
| Can be converted into long term memory through consolidation
40
Consolidation
Process of turning short-term memories into long term memories
41
Long-term potentiation
Following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in synaptic strength between two neurons leading to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
Increased chance of neuron firing after connection being stimulated
42
Innate behaviours
Things we know how to do instinctively
43
Observational learning
AKA social learning and vicarious learning
| Learning through watching and imitating others
44
Modeling
An action performed (modelled) by another person
45
Albert Bandura
Used Bobo doll and adults to model behaviour for children
46
Mirror neurons
Located in premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and inferior parietal cortex
Fire when performing tasks and when observing other perform tasks
Help learn through imitation
47
Vicarious emotions
Mirror neurons could be responsible
| Ie. empathy
48
Persuasion
One method of attitude and behaviour change
49
Elaborate likelihood model
Defines when/how people will be influenced - content vs. superficial
50
Three components of persuasiveness
1. Message characteristics
2. Source characteristics
3. Target characteristics
51
Two cognitive routes of persuasion
1. Central - content, lasting change
| 2. Peripheral - superficial, temporary change
52
Social cognitive theory
How we interpret and respond to external events, and how past situations have affects on our behaviour
Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors have influences on person's attitude change
53
Reciprocal determinism
Interaction between person's behaviours, personal factors, and environment
54
Three ways person and environment interact
1. Person chooses environment that shapes them
2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment
3. Person's personality influences the situation to which they then react
55
Behavioural genetics
Determine the role of inheritance on behavioural traits
56
IQ
Intelligence Quotient
57
Fluid intelligene (Gf)
Ability to think on your feet
58
Crystallized intelligence (Gc)
Ability to recall and apply already-learned information
59
Theory of multiple intelligences
8 different intelligence modalities
| Logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, interpersonal
60
Emotional intelligence
Being well attuned to own emotions
61
Intellectual disability
Those with IQ lower than 2 standdev from mean - less than 70
Also have difficulty adapting to demands of everyday life
Can sometimes be due to physical cause
62
Reflexes
Automatic behaviours
Used for survival, primitive
Originate in central nervous system
63
Moro reflex
Startle reflex due to loud sound or sudden movement
64
Rooting reflex
Response to touching or stroking baby cheek - baby begins to look for nipple
65
Sucking reflex
Anything touching roof of baby's mouth - sucking
66
Babinski reflex
Response to sole of foot being stroked, big toe move upwards or towards top of foot and other toes fan upwards
67
Tonic neck reflex
In response to head being turned to the side, baby will stretch out its arm on that side and bend other at the elbow
68
Palmar grasp reflex
Stroking baby's palm, baby will grasp
69
Walking/stepping reflex
When baby's feet touch flat surface, they will try to walk
70
Reflexive movements
Primitive, involuntary movements to prime the neuromuscular system and form basis for more sophisticated movement to come
71
Rudimentary movements
First voluntary movements as child, occur in predictable stages between 0-2
Rolling, sitting, crawling, standing and walking
Foundation on which fundamental movements are built
72
Fundamental movements
2-7yo
Child is learning to manipulate body through running, jumping, throwing and catching
Highly influenced by environment
73
Specialized movement
Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks
Can be divided into transitional substage and application substage
74
Transitional substage
Stage when combinations of movements occur
| ie. gasping, throwing, jumping - combined to shoot ball
75
Application substage
Conscious decisions to apply skills to specific types of activities
(ie. choosing baseball or basketball)
76
Maturation
Sequence of biological growth processes in human development
77
Lifelong application stage
Beginning in adolescence and progressing through adulthood
| Movements are continuously refined and applied to normal daily activities
78
Infantile amnesia
Do not remember anything before age of 3.5 usually
| Young children are still capable of learning and memory
79
Stranger anxiety
Crying and clinging to caregiver
| Peaks around 13mo then gradually declines
80
Contact comfort
Baby monkey experiment
| Contradicts that stranger anxiety is due to nourishment - actually about comfort
81
Securely attached infants
Will play when mother is in room, will become distressed when she leaves, but will be easily comforted
Responsive mothers
82
Insecurely attached infants
Less likely to explore in presence of mother (can even cling)
May cry or seem indifferent at mom's departure and return
Unresponsive mothers
83
Parenting style categories (3)
1. Authoritarian
2. Permissive
3. Authoritative
84
Authoritarian parents
Attempting to control children with strict rules that they are expected to follow unconditionally
Punishment instead of discipline and will not explain reasoning behind their rules
Children have difficulty - aggressive, shy, awkward
85
Permissive parents
Few rules and demands
| Children tend to lack self-discipline, may be self involved and demanding, poor social skills
86
Authoritative parents
Listen to children, encourage independence, place limits on behaviour, consistently follow through with consequences
Tends to produce happier children, who have good emotional control and regulation
87
Adolescence
Transitional stage between childhood and adulthood
Starts with puberty and ends with achievement of independent adult status
Usually encompasses teenage years
88
Three major brain changes during adolescence
1. Cell proliferation
2. Synaptic pruning
3. Myelination
89
Encoding
Process of transferring sensory information into our memory system
90
Serial position effect
Occurs when one is trying to learn a series, in immediate recall condition, individual is more likely to recall first and last items on the list
91
Primary effect
More likely to recall first thing on the list - more time to be transferred into long-term memory
92
Recency effect
More likely to recall last thing on the list - still in phonological loop
93
Mnemonic
Technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory
94
Rehearsal
Use of phonological loop through repeating
95
Chunking
Information to be remembered is organized in discrete groups of data
96
Hierarchies
For organization - into groups
97
Depth of processing
Information thought on a deeper level is more likely to be remembered
98
Dual coding hypothesis
Easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
99
Methods of loci
Imagining your way through a familiar place and in each place, leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered
100
Self-reference effect
It is easier to remember thing that are personally relevant
101
Sensory memory
Initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Very brief snapshot that quickly decays
Iconic and echoic memory
102
Iconic memory
Brief photographic memory for visual information
| Decays very quickly
103
Echoic memory
Memory for sound, which lasts 3-4 seconds
104
Short-term memory
Usually about 7 items
| only retained for about 20 seconds unless actively processed
105
Long-term memory
Information that is retained and sometimes indefinitely - infinite capacity
106
Implicit (procedural) memory
Conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something
107
Explicit (declarative memory)
Able to declare or voice what is known
108
Semantic memory
Memory for factual information
109
Episodic memory
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
110
Nodes
Sites on a map - how long-term memories are organized into a network
111
Association
Connection of nodes in long-term memory
| Strength of association is reliant on how frequently and deeply this connection is made
112
Response threshold
Node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbours
Effect of input signals is cumulative - summation of multiple nodes
113
Spreading activation
Nodes fire and send stimulus to its neighbours, activation of a few nodes leads to pattern of activation within the network
114
Retrieval
Process of finding information stored in memory
115
Recall
The ability to retrieve information
116
Free recall
Retrieving the item out of tin air
117
Cued recall
Retrieving the information when provided with a cue
118
Recognition
Identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented
119
Relearning
Proces of learning material that was originally learned
120
Interference
Can result in failure to retrieve information that is in storage
Passage of time can cause more opportunity for interference
121
Proactive interference
Information that is previously learned interferes with ability to recall information learned later
122
Retroactive interference
When newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously
123
Positive transfer
Old information facilitates the learning of new information
124
Schema
Mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world
Can lead to misremembering, especially with leading questions
125
Misinformation effect
When people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they are susceptible tot he misinformation effect, tendency to misremember
126
False memories
Occurs when repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events
Inaccurate recollections of an event and may be the result of implanting of ideas
127
Source monitoring
When individuals forget source of information
128
Neural plasticity
Refers to malleability of the brain's pathways
129
Neurogenesis
Birth of new neurons
| Small extent in hippocampus and cerebellum
