Chapter 6 (Weiten)

Question 1

Classical conditioning

Answer 1

A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was
originally evoked by another stimulus

Question 2

In Pavlov’s initial demonstration, what were the two stimuli and what types of stimuli were they?

Answer 2

1. The unconditioned stimuli was the meat powder (food)

2. The conditioned stimulus was the bell

Question 3

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 3

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned

response without previous conditioning

Question 4

Learning

Answer 4

Any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge

that is due to experience

Question 5

Conditioning

Answer 5

Learning associations

between events that occur in an organism’s environment

Question 6

Phobias

Answer 6

Irrational fears of specific objects or situations

Question 7

Conditioned stimulus

Answer 7

Previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired
the capacity to evoke a conditioned response

Question 8

Unconditioned response

Answer 8

An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous
conditioning

Question 9

Conditioned response

Answer 9

A learned

reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

Question 10

In Pavlov’s initial demonstration, what were the two responses and what types of responses were they?

Answer 10

1. The salivation to the meat was the unconditioned response
2. The salivation to the bell was the conditioned

Question 11

What is a trial in classical conditioning?

Answer 11

A trial in classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli

Question 12

What are three examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

Answer 12

1. Emotional responses (such as fears, anxiety and phobias)
2. Physiological responses (such as immunosuppression - a decrease in production of antibodies)
3. Sexual arousal

Question 13

Acquisition

Answer 13

The formation of a conditioned response tendency

Question 14

Stimulus contiguity

Answer 14

Temporal association between events; in other words, stimuli are continuous if they occur together in time and space

Question 15

What characteristics of the CS are more likely to produce acquisition of a CR?

Answer 15

A novel or particularly intense CS

Question 16

Extinction

Answer 16

The

gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

Question 17

When does acquisition occur in classical conditioning?

Answer 17

Occurs when the CS and UCS are continguous, or paired, gradually resulting in a CR

Question 18

When does extinction occur in classical conditioning?

Answer 18

Occurs when a CS is repeatedly presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR

Question 19

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 19

Reappearance of

an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

Question 20

Higher-order conditioning

Answer 20

Where an already conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus

Question 21

Evaluative conditioning

Answer 21

Changes in the liking of
a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative
stimuli

Question 22

Renewal effect

Answer 22

If a response
is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished
response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where
acquisition took place

Question 23

Generalization

Answer 23

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds
in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

Question 24

Discrimination

Answer 24

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does
not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

Question 25

Instinctual drift

Answer 25

Tendency of an animal, of any species, to revert to unconscious and automatic behaviour that interferes with operant conditioning and the learned responses that come with it

Question 26

Operant conditioning

Answer 26

A type of of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences

Question 27

Who was operant conditioning pioneered by?

Answer 27

B.F. Skinner

Question 28

What did B.F. Skinner show with rats and pigeons?

Answer 28

Showed that rats and pigeons tend to repeat responses that are followed by favourable outcomes

Question 29

What are two differences in the responses of classical versus operant conditioning ?

Answer 29

1. Classical conditioning mainly regulates involuntary, reflexive responses whereas operant conditioning mainly regulates voluntary, spontaneous responses
2. Responses controlled through classical conditioning are said to be elicited whereas responses controlled through operant conditioning are said to be emitted

Question 30

Reinforcement

Answer 30

Occurs when an event (reward) following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response

Question 31

Reinforcement contingencies

Answer 31

The circumstances

or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

Question 32

What three conditions are needed for punishment to work?

Answer 32

1. Swift
2. Severe
3. Must catch all behaviour

Question 33

Why is reinforcement is more effective than punishment?

Answer 33

Punishment decreases all behaviour including good behaviour

Question 34

What are the two types of reinforcers?

Answer 34

1. Positive reinforcer - reward

2. Negative reinforcer - taking away something bad

Question 35

What are the two types of punishment?

Answer 35

1. Positive punishment - presenting aversive stimulus

2. Negative punishment - taking away something positive

Question 36

What is the purpose of a cumulative recorder?

Answer 36

To create a graphic record of responding and reinforcement

in a Skinner box as a function of time

Question 37

What is the key dependent variable in most research on operant conditioning?

Answer 37

Response rate

Question 38

Shaping

Answer 38

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of

a desired response (also known as the method of successive approximations)

Question 39

When does generalization occur in classical conditioning?

Answer 39

Occurs when a CR is elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS, as in Watson and Rayner’s study of Little Albert

Question 40

When does discrimination occur in classical conditioning?

Answer 40

Occurs when a CR is not elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS

Question 41

When does acquisition occur in operant conditioning?

Answer 41

Occurs when a response gradually increases due to contingent reinforcement; may involve shaping

Question 42

When does extinction occur in operant conditioning?

Answer 42

Occurs when responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated

Question 43

When does generalization occur in operant conditioning?

Answer 43

Occurs when responding increases in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus

Question 44

When does discrimination occur in operant conditioning?

Answer 44

Occurs when responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus

Question 45

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 45

Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating

the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response

Question 46

What is an example of discriminative stimulus?

Answer 46

A pigeon’s disk pecking
may be reinforced only when a small light behind the disk is lit. When the light is out,
pecking does not lead to the reward. Pigeons quickly learn to peck the disk only when
it is lit. The light that signals the availability of reinforcement is called a discriminative
stimulus.

Question 47

What is the difference between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 47

Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing because they directly satisfy a need (i.e. food, water, warmth, sex, and perhaps affection
expressed through hugging and close bodily contact). Secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers develop through learning. They acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with
primary reinforcers. Examples of common secondary
reinforcers in humans include money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.

Question 48

Continous reinforcement

Answer 48

Every time something happens, you get reinforced for it

Question 49

What is the biggest advantage and disadvantage of continuous reinforcement?

Answer 49

+ : learn very quickly

- : as soon as you are not rewarded, behaviour is extinguished very quickly

Question 50

Partial reinforcement

Answer 50

All different levels of not continuous reinforcement

Question 51

Intermittent reinforcement

Answer 51

Occurs when a response is reinforced only some of the time

Question 52

Ratio schedules

Answer 52

Where the reinforcer is given after a fixed (FR) or variable (VR) number of non-reinforced responses

Question 53

Fixed ratio

Answer 53

Where the reinforcer is
given after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses. e.g. A rat is reinforced
for every tenth lever press

Question 54

Variable ratio

Answer 54

Where the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. The number of non-reinforced responses
varies around a predetermined average. e.g. The slot machines in Vegas

Question 55

Interval schedules

Answer 55

Where the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed (FI) or variable (VI) time interval has elapsed

Question 56

Fixed interval

Answer 56

Where the reinforcer is

given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

Question 57

Variable interval

Answer 57

Where the reinforcer is given for the first response
after a variable time interval has
elapsed. The interval length varies around
a predetermined average.

Question 58

What is the biggest advantage and disadvantage of partial reinforcement?

Answer 58

+ : hard to extinguish

- : learn slowly

Question 59

From which reinforcement method is the learned behaviour hardest to extinguish?

Answer 59

Variable ratio

Question 60

What causes superstitions?

Answer 60

False causal attributions oftentimes from one trial learning

Question 61

Why do people do better when they have their charms on them?

Answer 61

Because it gives them a feeling of self-efficacy like, I can do this. This translates to them working harder at the task in real-life.

Question 62

Stereotype threat

Answer 62

A situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group

Question 63

How does negative reinforcement contribute to the maintenance of superstitions and phobias?

Answer 63

You think that by doing a certain behaviour you are preventing a negative outcome when really, the negative outcome is already a low frequency event

Question 64

How can doing a specific routine before free throws be beneficial?

Answer 64

Muscle memory and a feeling of self-efficacy

Question 65

What part of the brain deals with routinized things?

Answer 65

Basal ganglia

Question 66

What is an example of how ranchers using operant conditioning and one trial learning to their advantage?

Answer 66

There have been a number of experiments that show coyotes eating livestock at night. So, ranchers sacrifice one of their lambs by lacing it with poison. When the coyote eats that lamb, it gets really sick and never comes back to that ranch again.