Chapter 7 & 8 Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
metatheria
A
Mammals that reproduce without a placenta, including the marsupials.
2
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prototheria
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Mammals that reproduce by egg-laying and then nurse young from nipples. The Australian platy-pus and echidna are the only living monotremes.
3
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eutheria
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Number of species 1,000 1,700
380 240 270 400
Mammals that reproduce with a placenta and uterus.
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strepsirhine
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(Strepsirhini) Suborder of the order Primates that includes the prosimians, lemurs and lorises excluding the tarsier.
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haplorhine (Haplorhini)
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S uborder of the order Primates that includes the anthropoids and the tarsier.
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prosimian
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Member of the primate suborder Prosimii that includes the lemurs, lorises, galagos, and tarsiers.
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anthropoid
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Members of the primate suborder Anthropoidea that includes the monkeys, apes, and hominins.
8
Q
arboreal hypothesis
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Hypothesis for the origin of primate adaptation that focuses on the value of grasping hands and stereoscopic vision for life in the trees.
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visual predation hypothesis
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Hypothesis for the origin of primate adaptation that focuses on the value of grasping hands and stereoscopic vision for catching small prey.
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dental arcade
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The parabolic arc that forms the upper or lower row of teeth.
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neocortex
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The part of the brain that controls
higher cognitive function; the cerebrum.
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ontogeny
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The life cycle of an organism from conception to death.
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diurnal
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Active during daylight hours.
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nocturnal
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Active at night.
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sociality Group living;
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a fundamental trait of haplorhine primates.
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Platyrrhini
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Infraorder of the order Primates that is synonymous with the New World monkeys, or ceboids.
17
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prehensile tail
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Grasping tail possessed by some species of the primate families Cebidae and Atelidae.
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polyandrous mating system
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Mating system in which one female mates with multiple males
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Catarrhini
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Infraorder of the order Primates that includes the Old World mon-keys, apes, and hominins.
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estrus
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Hormonally influenced period of sexual receptivity in some female mammals that corresponds to the timing of ovulation.
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Hylobatidae
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The gibbon, or lesser ape, family.
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Homininae
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Subamily that includes all humans, modern and extinct, plus the African great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla).
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brachiation
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Mode of arm-hanging and arm-swinging that uses a rotating shoulder to suspend the body of an ape or hominin beneath a branch or to travel between branches.
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frugivorous
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Term describing an animal that eats a diet composed mainly of fruit.
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fission–fusion
Form of mating system seen in chimpanzees, bonobos, and a few other primates in which there are temporary subgroups but no sta-ble, cohesive groups.
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galagos
Small primates that live in many African forests; also called bushbabies.
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ecology
The study of the interrelationships of plants, animals, and the physi-cal environment in which they live.
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folivores
Animals that eat a diet composed mainly of leaves, or foliage.
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activity budget
The pattern of waking, eating, moving, socializing, and sleep-ing that all nonhuman primates engage in each day.
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core area
The part of a home range that is most intensively used
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territory
The part of a home range that is defended against other members of the same species.
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captive study
Primate behavior study conducted in a zoo, laboratory, or other en-closed setting.
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semi-free-ranging environment
Primate behavior study conducted in a large area that is enclosed or isolated in some way so the popu-lation is captive.
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field study
Primate behavior study conducted in the habitat in which the primate naturally occurs.
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social system
The grouping pattern in which a primate species lives, including its size and composition evolved in response to natural and sexual selection pressures.
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female philopatry
Primate social system in which females remain and breed in the group of their birth, whereas males emigrate.
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male philopatry
Primate social system in which males remain and breed in the group of their birth, whereas females emigrate.
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dominance hierarchy
Ranking of individual primates in a group that reflects their ability to displace, intimidate, or defeat group mates in contests.
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sexual receptivity
Willingness and ability of a female to mate; also defined as fertility
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polygyny
Mating system consisting of at least one male and more than one female.
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monogamy
A mating bond; primates can be socially monogamous but still mate occasionally outside the pair bond.
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infanticide
The killing of infants, either by members of the infant’s group or by a member of a rival group.
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fission–fusion polygyny
Type of primate polygyny in which animals travel in foraging parties of varying sizes instead of a cohe-sive group.
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polyandry
Mating system in which one female mates with multiple males
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Why Do Physical Anthropologists Study Primates?
1. We are primates so studying other living primates will inform us about the stages of our own evolutionary history. Great apes, chimpanzees bonobos. We can identify stages shared by them. Essentially studying reflectios of our own stages.
2. We are also interested in studying evolutionary processes in action. Like natural selection and things that drove the evolutionary changes that led to us. Many of the processes (like natural selection and sexual selection) that are acting on modern primate species are likely working in similar ways to when they played a role in our own emergence.
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Organic Life: how many living species?
could be 8 million living species. Including insects.
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Organic life: Domains
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
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Organic Life: kingdoms
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
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Organic Life: Phylum
36 phyla- subgroups
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Some Phyla of the animal kingdom
Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Porifera
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How many classes of the Phylum Chordata?
includes 60k species
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The class Mammalia is divided up into three infraclasses:
1. Metatheria: marsupials 350 species most in australia
2. Prototheria: monotremes (platypus and echidna) very small group
3. Eutheria: placental mammals- 5000 species, this is where we belong. The infraclass Eutheria includes about twenty different Orders, one of which is Primata.about 375 species of primates.
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Eight Anatomical Traits -general traits that we exhibit in one way or another.
1. Grasping hands with opposable 1st and 2nd digits -Prehensibility- fundemental primate trait. Some species arent that great tho. Grasp with precision. Humans lost this in our feet but in our hands we are the best at this. Played a major role in our evolutiona s humans.
2. Flattened Nails- having claws is the ancestral condiition among mammals. We now have flattened nails, representing a shift in the functions of the limbs early in the primate lineage.
3. Forward-Facing Eyes- Stereoscopic Vision- some variability in this but in apes and humans our eyes are close together.
4. Generalized Body Plan
5. Bipedalism
6. Generalized Dentition
7. Enclosed Bony Eye Orbits-
8. Large Brains
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Were viewed as a package- these 3 traits:
1. Grasping hands with opposable 1st and 2nd digits -Prehensibility- fundemental primate trait. Some species arent that great tho. Grasp with precision. Humans lost this in our feet but in our hands we are the best at this. Played a major role in our evolutiona s humans.
2. Flattened Nails- having claws is the ancestral condiition among mammals. We now have flattened nails, representing a shift in the functions of the limbs early in the primate lineage.
3. Forward-Facing Eyes- Stereoscopic Vision- some variability in this but in apes and humans our eyes are close together.
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Arboreal Hypothesis
Argues the 3 packaged traits would logically develop when living in trees and leaping from branches and grasping food with precision. Accuracy in judging distances and spotting food. (Wood-Jones and Elliot-Smith, 1920s)-
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Visual Predation Hypothesis
(Cartmill 1970s)- notes squirrels are good at being in trees but lack these 3 traits so… these are adaptations for catching prey- insects and smaller animals. Noted that other predators have these features, like tigers and stuff.
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Problems with the Visual Predation Hypothesis:
- Don’t have to adapt in the same way to be successful. Birds and bats fly but bats done have beaks.
- Just because traits are shared doesn’t mean they will share same habitat.
- Older arboreal hyp still makes most sense.
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9. Generalized Body Plan- vs. Specialized body plans:
we are highly versatile and adaptable- get lots of different food live lots of different places.
vs.
- Horses can run at high speeds and outrun predators.
- Seals can swim fast and catch fish
- Anteaters can eat ants and termites,
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Types of Primate Locomotion-
the primary way to move around:
- Vertical Clinging and Leaping- ony practiced by small primates.
-Arboreal Quadrupedalis- most common among monkeys medium size.
-Brachiation (also called ‘suspension’) hand over hand from branch to branch- evolved very long arms and short legs and long finger bones- think monkey bars.
-Terrestrial Quadrupedalism- walking with all 4 on the ground. Great apes are primarily this, but they walk on fists, not palms of hands like most.
Bipedalism – least common- humans, chimps bonobos.
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facultative vs habitual vs obligate bipedalism
“facultative bipedalism”- not the spcies normal way of walking and only used for certain tasks. They do it awkwardly. Most monkeys and apes.
“habitual” – chimps, tend to do it but can also do quad.
“obligate” bipedalism- only humans do this, which means we are only able to do this.
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10. Generalized Dentition
Other species have specialized dentition but we can be omnivores with our general teeth. Incisors- used to grasp food and pull int mouth. Caninies- used for killing prey or defense against predators or competitive mating. Human canines are small. Bunodont evolved to allow chewing of many food types, bears and pigs have this- reflects eating a wide range of food.
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Reduced Olfactory Systems
(reduced sense of smell)- shift away from reliance on smell to more reliance on vision. Seen in snout size and complex eye structures among primates- colour vision- likely evolved to find things during the day rather than at night. Noctorunal animals rely on smell and are generally colourblind. Dineral- up during the day. Most primates are dineral
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Enclosed Bony Eye Orbits
most mammals have open eye sockets, meaning eye is not super well protected. Post orbital closure- thick bone protects eye.
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encephalization
ratio of brain size to body size. Greater means larger brain relative to body size. E.g. elephant brain is larger, but chimpanzees have higher degree of encephalization. As body size increases brain size does too but primates fall above the line, have more brain than we need to just run our body. Large brain suggests brain is doing other things- a higher degree of intelligence.
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K selected reproductive strategy
very few babies at a time and over course of mom life, mom invests more attention on baby and longer periods of reliance on parents
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R selective
- many offspring and invest less time and energy in looking after them
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Altricial vs Precocial
Altricial: babies are born underdeveloped and dependent on mothers for extended periods. Immoble and helpless. Humans are altricial.
In precocial species, babies are relatively well-developed and mobile at birth. Whales are good examples.
Primates are typically precocial, can grab moms fur. but there is wide variability in this - e.g., humans!
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Advantages of Living in Social Groups?
Ready access to potential mates- easier than going to search for one.
* Cooperation in finding food
* Cooperation in rearing young
* Cooperation in avoiding or defending against predators
* Reduced chance that any one individual will be the unlucky meal for a predator
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Adaptive Radiation:
‘Rapid’ speciation (divergent evolution) within a lineage to fill different ecological niches — usually follows a major change in environmental circumstances.
Eg. appearance of insect pollinators … following the extinction of the dinosaurs. Punctuated equlibruim. flowering plants that were not common until insect pollinators came and helped spread pollen. 100 million years ago. Today 400k species
Another example: 1 monkey species arrived in S. America from Africa – no primates prior to 35 mya … … back then south american was not connected to any continents so monkeys had to raft over and adapt to the jungle there. Over the next several million years they evolved int 5 different families and diverged into 150+ different species.
… and Darwin’s Galapagos finches- adaptive radiation is the typical course of natural selection.
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Mammals appeared:
200 mya (million years ago)
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Homologies or Homologous Traits
Traits shared by different species due to a common ancestry: e.g spinal cord in vertebrates. .we inherited this from a common ancestor with a spinal cord.
Monkeys having a tail- share ancestor with a tail.
Apes not having a tail- share ancestor that lacked tail.
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Parallel Evolution:
Independent evolution of a similar trait in different species
An especially large brain in humans and dolphins. Having a brain as a homologous trait because we got it from an ancestor, but that was 95 million years ago from a super small rodent species so we evolved on our own.
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Convergent Evolution:
Different species with very different evolutionary lineages evolve similar traits Insects wings and flight Similar traits shared by different species that resulted from convergent or parallel evolution (evolved independently of each other) are called Analogies or Analogous Traits
e.g. wings and flight Similar traits shared by different species- birds, bats and insects that resulted from convergent or parallel evolution (evolved independently of each other)
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Five major adaptive radiation events
1. First radiation in the Late Cretaceous (80–65 mya):
* Appearance of first ‘primates’ from common ancestor.
* Slight divergence from insectivore ancestor.
* Tooth shape indicates broadening of the diet. Probably looked like modern tree shrew
2. Second radiation in the Paleocene (65–55 mya):
* Emergence of true primates: fundamental primate traits
* grasping hands * nails instead of claws * vision begins to dominate over smell . reflected in shape of brain and face.
* 2 major lines: lemur-like and tarsier-like forms
3. Third radiation in the Early or Mid-Eocene (55–45 mya):
* Primitive monkeys appear
* Increased arboreal quadrupedalism opossed to clinging and leaping. * Larger brain and increased reliance on vision
4. Fourth radiation in Late Oligocene/Early Miocene (30–20 mya):
* Split into two main groups: monkeys and primitive apes
* Difference is diet: monkeys eat leaves, early apes eat fruit different dentition
* All still arboreal no speicies large enough to live on ground yet.
5. Fifth radiation in the Late Miocene (after 17 mya):
* Appearance of first true apes
* Large, barrel-like torso
* Limbs designed for hand-over-hand climbing
* Some terrestrial adaptations
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Following the second radiation, from 55 to 35 mya, primates were dominated by 2 major prosimian (‘primitive’) families:
Adapidae (resemble modern lemurs)
and Omomyidae( .resemble modern tarsier)
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Oligocene Primates: features
35–25 mya – come from fayum depression in egypt. Have common characteristics:
* Mouse-sized to cat-sized (all quite small)
* Frugivorous - based on dentition ate fruit
* Arboreal quadrupeds
* Small eye orbits suggest diurnal adaptation.(Nocturnal would have large eye orbits)
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Oligocene fossils from the Fayum include 6 different genera with common characteristics:
* Averaged about 7 kg
* Might be ape ancestor, but still essentially a monkey
* Had a tail (like living monkeys)
Combination of primitive and advanced features:
Primitive: found in old fossils
* Relatively long snout
* Larger brain but smaller than living monkeys
* Eye orbits still a bit laterally facing Combination of primitive and advanced features:
Advanced: * Substantial sexual dimorphism -males are larger
* Reduced olfactory structures
* Eye orbits closed off with postorbital plates to protect their eyes. Cup like.
* Larger visual cortex in brain- can see because they are preserved in the shape of the braincase, allows us to see details of brain structure in extinct species.
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Miocene Primates (25–5 mya)
Primitive apes first appear in fossil record of East Africa around start of the Miocene.
≈15 mya, Africa collided with Eurasian continent resulting in radiation of monkeys and early apes between these regions. Early in Miocene, apes became abundant, but then diversity decreased and monkeys become more abundant - by end of Miocene, apes became rare. Emergence of the true apes, this let them travel super fast. End of miocene fossil apes become very rare.
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Miocene climate:
inhabiting woodland and forest settings,
Global climate began to slowly change in late Miocene towards cooler, drier conditions, savanna grassland.
East african rift valley- 6000 k geologic fault- spreading tectonic plates, rivers and lakes would form ehre giving rich life for apes.
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Early Miocene Primate features (20–15 mya)
* Early ape
* Resembled living apes
* Forward facing eyes
* Smaller snout
* Larger brain
* Lacked a tail
* Frugivorous dentition
* Arboreal quadruped – would have been able to suspend
* But could suspend Ekembo The textbook still uses old name: ‘Proconsul
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Middle to Late Miocene Primates (15–5 mya)
Dryopithecus, Sivaputecus, Gigantoputhecus:
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Dryopithecus:
* Very similar to Ekembo * Lived in Europe * 2 to 4 different species * Chimpanzee-like
* Much more ape-like body * Orthograde posture- means they are more upright.
* Sexually dimorphic canines Chimpanzee Sivapithecus (12–7 mya) Sivapithecus, not super dimorphic in body size.
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Sivaputecus:
* Orangutan-sized * Woodland dweller * Large incisors and canines: ate roots/tubers * Resembles modern orangutan Modern orangutan Gigantopithecus 7.0–0.5 mya
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Gigantoputhecus:
* Largest primate ever, but no postcranial fossils * Very similar dentition to Sivapithecus, just MUCH bigger! * Had to be terrestrial Ø Based on body size, which is based on jaw and tooth size * Most fossils come from Siwalik Hills, but some from China . too big to climb trees.
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Suborder: Strepsirrhini
2 superfamilies
(Prosimians)
Lemurs and Lorises
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Suborder: Haplorrhini
Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans
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Infraorder: Tarsiiformes
Tarsiers
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Infraorder: Anthropoidea
all moneys, apes, humans.
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Parvorder: Platyrrhini
New world monkeys
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Parvorder: Catarrhini
Old-world monkeys, apes, humans
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Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea
Old World Monkeys
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Superfamily: Hominoidea
Apes and humans
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Family: Hylobatidae
Lesser apes (gibbons)
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Family: Hominidae
great apes and humans
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Subfamily: pongine
Orangutans
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Subfamily: Gorilline
Gorillas
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Subfamily:Hominine
Chimps, bonobos, humans.
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Tribe: Panini
Chimps, bonobos
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Tribe: Hominini
Humans (living and fossil species)
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Aye-Aye
nocturnal lemur. other Lemurs are dinnural
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Tarsies- facts (location food, way of life)
restricted to islands in southeast asia. Nocturnal superpredetor. Lizards, frogs and insects. Eyes do not move in sockets they have to move whole head to see. Small social groupls, live in monogamous pairs.
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Infraorder: Platyrrhini The New World monkeys – facts (location food, way of life)
accednetially rafted across the atlantic. Jump dispersals. Means flat nose- wider distance between nostrils of new world monkeys compared to old.
1. They have small bodies
2. They are all arboreal- no terrestrial monkeys in new world.
3. They have three premolars- all other primates have 2.
2.1.2.3- dental formula.
Prehensile tails among some New World monkeys.- can grasp objects with tail, such as tree branches. No old world monkeys have this.
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Parvorder: Catarrhini Old World monkeys and apes
Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea -
Facts
1. Greater size range than New World monkeys.
2. Greater degree of sexual dimorphism.
3. Old World monkeys have ischial callosities. Thickened pads on rumbs to sit on hard rocks and be comfortable.
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Hylobatidae Hominidae This currently includes four living genera:
orangutans- 3 species
gorillas- 2 species
chimpanzees- 2 species
humans 1 species
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Part 1: Why Are primates so socially complex?
1. Reproduction 2. Food 3. Protection from Predators
Group living would provide advantages in this in order to be selected.
1. Reproduction: Access to Mates
2. Accessing Food- living in large groups affects this as well- food sharing is not common unless closely related.
Intra-Group Competition for food- younger smaller weaker less aggressive may get less food.
Matrilineal Clusters- related females stick together and share as a competitive unit so they can get food.
3. Avoiding Predators- living in social groups helps this.
Group size and predators Primate size and larger groups can both attract and detect predators.
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One-Male Polygyny:
Multiple females and 1 male.
one male used to be called harem, but this is usually decided by females.
Infanticide is common in these groups. Male will kill other males' offspring and then try to make his own.
‘Extragroup males’ in ‘bachelor groups
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Multi-Male Polygyny:
Rather than competing for sole access to females, males compete for priority of access. This produces a dominance hierarchy … … with alpha male at top. All the weak ones remain on the fringe.
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Fission-Fusion Polygyny:
Temporary formation of small groups that come together and split apart repeatedly. Chimp and bonobos.
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Polyandry:
A single female living with multiple males. This improved the chances her offspring will be taken care off, have food and be safer from predators.
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Dominance and Reproductive Success ?
? form evolutionary POV thought that there was advantage for dominant males- fathered most offspring. No correlation on this actually- in some societies even low ranking males have reproductive success. Females mate with them in secret while on the outside they look like they are going after the alpha.
Don’t want your offspring to be fathered by one male, so they try to have more mates.
If females only mated with larger aggressive males would mean that society became bigger and meaner.
Social behaviour is changeable- bucnh of dead aggressive males- baboons- once they were gone the society changed.
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the taxonomy of apes and humans
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Now, let's focus on the families within the Suborder Haplorrhini:
Family: Hylobatidae (Gibbons) -
Family: Hominidae (Great Apes and Humans) -
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Petrosal bulla
Protective Inner ear bone that is shared by all primates and no other mammals
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Some of the major researchers associated with primate research.
Jane Goodall, Dian dossey, birtue galikas, Louis leaky
