Chapter 7: Positive And Negative Elements Of Social Interactions

Question 1

Dispositional Attribution

Answer 1

Behavior that is attributed to internal causes

Question 2

Situational Attribution

Answer 2

Behavior that is attributed to external causes

Question 3

What three factors determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes?

Answer 3

Consistency (Is this how the person usually acts?)
Distinctiveness (Is the person only acting towards you a certain way or everyone?)
Consensus (Is only that one person angry or is everyone angry?)

Question 4

fundamental attribution error

Answer 4

when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character on their behavior
Example: Someone cuts us off, so he must be a jerk

Question 5

the actor-observer bias

Answer 5

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Example: We cut someone off, we’re in a hurry

Question 6

the self-serving bias

Answer 6

the tendency to attribute our successes to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment

Question 7

the optimism bias

Answer 7

the belief that bad things happen to other people, not us

Question 8

the just world phenomenon

Answer 8

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve (when bad things happen to others, we tend to believe that it is the result of their actions; when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it)

Question 9

the halo effect (halo error)

Answer 9

a tendency to believe that people have good or bad natures, rather than looking at an individual’s characteristics

Question 10

the physical attractiveness stereotype

Answer 10

a specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive people more favorable for personality traits and characteristics

Question 11

social perception

Answer 11

the initial information we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions

Question 12

social cognition

Answer 12

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perceptions

Question 13

false consensus

Answer 13

occurs when we assume everyone agrees with us

Question 14

projection bias

Answer 14

occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do

Question 15

stereotypes

Answer 15

oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics

Question 16

prejudice

Answer 16

thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience

Question 17

discrimination

Answer 17

unjust treatment of a group based on characteristics

Question 18

racism

Answer 18

prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race or hold that one race is inferior to another

Question 19

institutional discrimination

Answer 19

discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives

Question 20

illusory correlation

Answer 20

occurs when someone with a unique characteristic is seen as a representative of a group
Example: All blacks must be good at basketball because Michael Jordan is good at basketball

Question 21

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 21

when stereotypes lead a person to behave a certain way as to affirm the original stereotype

Question 22

stereotype threat

Answer 22

the fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype they know a person has towards the group to which they belong

Question 23

ethnocentrisism

Answer 23

the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Question 24

cultural relativism

Answer 24

judging another culture based on its own standards

Question 25

group

Answer 25

a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations; split into primary groups (those with whom a person engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways) and secondary groups (those with whom a person interacts for a specific reason, for a short period of time)

Question 26

aggregate

Answer 26

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

Question 27

category

Answer 27

people who share similar characteristics, but are not otherwise tied together

Question 28

in-group

Answer 28

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who he is

Question 29

out-group

Answer 29

a group that an individual does not belong to

Question 30

mere presence

Answer 30

people who are simply in each other's presence; can have a considerable effect on an individual's performance

Question 31

social facilitation effect

Answer 31

when people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present

Question 32

deindividuation

Answer 32

when people lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality during periods of high arousal and low responsibility; usually occurs in large groups

Question 33

Kitty Genovese Case

Answer 33

involved the stabbing of a woman in NYC late at night; her neighbors heard her cries for help, but no one actually helped her because everyone assumed someone else had called for help

Question 34

bystander effect

Answer 34

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around; creates a diffusion of responsibility

Question 35

social loafing

Answer 35

when people are working towards a common goal, they tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

Question 36

group polarization

Answer 36

the finding that groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of its members (the entire group tends toward a more extreme version of the average views they initially shared before discussion)

Question 37

Two reasons why group polarization occurs

Answer 37

informational influence- complying because we feel like other know something we don't know normative influence- complying because we want to be accepted by others

Question 38

groupthink

Answer 38

pressure not to rock the boat in a group by providing a dissenting opinion

Question 39

symptoms of groupthink

Answer 39

the group is overly optimistic of its capabilities the group becomes increasingly extreme some members filter out information that goes against the beliefs of the group individuals censor their own opinion

Question 40

deviance

Answer 40

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

Question 41

stigma

Answer 41

extreme disapproval of a person based on that person's actual or perceived deviance from society

Question 42

Solomon Asch

Answer 42

demonstrated conformity through an experiment that had subjects compare three lines both in the presence of confederates and by themselves

Question 43

Stanley Milgram

Answer 43

demonstrated conformity with his shock experiments

Question 44

Three ways behavior may be motivated by social influences

Answer 44

Compliance- is motivated by the desire to seek rewards and avoid punishment Identification- is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group Internalization- is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system (the most enduring motivator)

Question 45

self concept (self identity)

Answer 45

the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his or herself (includes physical, psychological, and social attributes)

Question 46

self schema

Answer 46

beliefs that a person has about him or herself

Question 47

personal identity

Answer 47

consists of one's own sense of personal attributes (Examples- smart, funny)

Question 48

social identity

Answer 48

consists of social definitions of who you are (Examples- race, religion, gender, occupation)

Question 49

self reference effect

Answer 49

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Question 50

Carl Rogers

Answer 50

Founder of the humanistic psychology perspective Believed that personality is composed of the ideal self (who you ought to be), which is usually an impossible standard, and the real self (who you actually are) When the real self and the ideal self are similar, the result is a positive self concept When the real self falls short of the ideal self, the result is incongruity

Question 51

Three influences on an individual's development of self concept

Answer 51

1. Self-efficacy (how capable we believe we are at doing something) 2. Locus of control (internal or external) 3. Self esteem (one's overall self-evaluation of one's self worth)

Question 52

Internal Locus of Control

Answer 52

the belief of an individual that he or she is able to influence outcomes through their own efforts or actions

Question 53

External Locus of Control

Answer 53

the belief of an individual that an outcome is controlled by outside forces

Question 54

learned helplessness

Answer 54

occurs when an animal is repeatedly subjected to a stimulus that it cannot escape; eventually the animal stops trying to avoid the stimulus and behaves as if it is utterly helpless to change the situation

Question 55

identity formation (individuation)

Answer 55

the development of a distinct individual personality (changes throughout life)

Question 56

Charles Cooley

Answer 56

posited the idea of the looking glass self (the idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others); people shape their self concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

Question 57

George Herbert Mead

Answer 57

developed the idea of social behaviorism

Question 58

social behaviorism

Answer 58

the idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communication with others; the beginning of symbolic interactionism

Question 59

According to Mead, what is the path to the development of self?

Answer 59

1. Preparatory Stage- children imitate others, as they have no concept of how others see things 2. Play Stage- children take on the roles of others through playing 3. Game Stage- children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and begin to understand the responsibility of multiple roles 4. The child develops an understanding of the generalized other

Question 60

the generalized other

Answer 60

the common behavioral expectations of common society

Question 61

Mead's idea of the "me" and the "I"

Answer 61

"Me" is how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it; the "I" is the response to the "me" (is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others)

Question 62

socialization

Answer 62

the process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society

Question 63

norms

Answer 63

spoken or unspoken rules and expectations a society has for the behavior of its members

Question 64

sanctions

Answer 64

rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms (reinforces norms)

Question 65

formal norms

Answer 65

generally written down; are precisely defines, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

Question 66

informal norms

Answer 66

are generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishment

Question 67

mores

Answer 67

norms that are strictly enforced because they are highly important for the benefit of society

Question 68

folkways

Answer 68

norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior

Question 69

assimilation

Answer 69

the process by which an individual forsakes aspects of his own cultural traditions to adopt those of different cultures

Question 70

amalgamation

Answer 70

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

Question 71

multiculturalism (pluralism)

Answer 71

endorse equal standing for all cultural traditions; cultures come together in a melting pot; each culture is able to maintain its own practices

Question 72

subculture

Answer 72

a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society; is a culture existing within a larger dominant culture

Question 73

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Answer 73

Level 1- Preconventional Level of Moral Reasoning: Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment Orientation ("How can I avoid Punishment?"); Stage 2- Self-Interest Orientation ("What's in it for me?") Level 2- Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning: Stage 3- Interpersonal Accord and Conformity ("What will make others like me?"); Stage 4- Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation ("What am I supposed to do?") Level 3- Post Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning (many people never reach): Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation ("The greatest good for the greatest number of people"); Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principles (Laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice)