Chapter 8

Question 1

Cognitive Economy

Answer 1

System of thinking and shortcuts that allows us to simplify what we need to attend to and keeps decision-making info at a manageable level.

Question 2

Heuristics

Answer 2

Mental shortcuts
-historically may have advanced human survival
-useful in everyday life

Question 3

Cognitive Misers

Answer 3

Spend as little mental energy as possible unless its necessary to do so

Question 4

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 4

A way in which you judge the likelihood of an event happening based on how often that event has occurred in your experiences.
Ex. Stereotypes

Question 5

Base Rate

Answer 5

How common a behaviour or characteristic is in general

Question 6

Availability Heuristic

Answer 6

Helps to estimate the likelihood of an occurrence based on how easy it is for our memory to access it.
-leads to people fearing more things that actually aren’t that dangerous compared to fearing less about things that are. Like flying in an airplane and driving in a car, which one is more likely to kill you?

Question 7

Hindsight Bias

Answer 7

Our tendency to overestimate how accurately we would have predicted the outcomes of a situation after we already know the outcome.
-the “I knew it all along” effect

Question 8

Confirmation Bias

Answer 8

Tendency to seek out and only look for information that already supports our beliefs and deny or overlook info that does not support it.

Question 9

Top Down Processing

Answer 9

How we fill in the missing info using our experiences and background knowledge.

Question 10

Bottom-up Processing

Answer 10

The process of gathering information on what is around or in front of us by using our senses to discover them and then using our knowledge.

Question 11

Concepts

Answer 11

Knowledge and ideas we have on objects, actions and characteristics that pertain to one thing.
Example: Dog-all of the ideas and knowledge we have that makes something a dog

Question 12

Schemas

Answer 12

Concepts stored in our memory on how objects, actions and ideas fit together. Like going to the mall or cleaning the house.

Question 13

System 1 thinking

Answer 13

Rapid and Intuitive

Question 14

System 2 thinking

Answer 14

Slow and Analytical

Question 15

Framing

Answer 15

How we put together/word a question about something we need to decide on.
Example: Kind of like whether you are looking at the glass half full or the glass half empty. The sentence has the same information but is just worded in a different way.

Question 16

Algorithims

Answer 16

Step-by-step learned process of doing things.
Example: How to put on a coat

Question 17

Salience of Surface Similarities

Answer 17

Is how attention grabbing something is.
Causes us to have an error in thinking where we tend to hold on to “keywords” or surface level/attention grabbing properties of a problem and have a more difficult time breaking down the problem to figure it out.

Question 18

Mental Sets

Answer 18

Error in thinking where we get stuck in looking at something in only one way and have a difficult time “thinking out of the box”

Question 19

Functional Fixedness

Answer 19

An error in thinking where one has a hard time looking at or using an object for anything other than it’s intended purpose.

Question 20

Language

Answer 20

A system of communication that uses written words, images and gestures, following sets of rules to create meaning

Question 21

Phonemes

Answer 21

The sounds of languages
These are generated by everything pertaining to our vocal tract.

Question 22

Morphemes

Answer 22

The smallest string of letters in a language that has meaning
Example: “re” (re)write or (re)call-the process of doing something over again

Question 23

Syntax

Answer 23

Grammatical rules that determine how we put words together to make something that is “meaningful” or “makes sense”

Question 24

Extralinguistic Information

Answer 24

Elements that are not part of the definition of language but are crucial to how we interpret or make sense of the communication, like facial expressions or tone of voice

Question 25

Dialects

Answer 25

Variations of the same language used and spoken by different groups of people from different geographical areas, social groups and ethnic groups.

Question 26

Babbling

Answer 26

Intentional vocalization that lacks meaning Children begin this in the first year of their life. Testing out their vocal tracts.

Question 27

One-Word Stage

Answer 27

A developmental stage where children will use one word to communicate many different ideas. Example: fishy

Question 27

One-Word Stage

Answer 27

A developmental stage where children will use one word to communicate many different ideas. Example: fishy -could mean I see a fish or I want a fish

Question 28

Critical Period of Development

Answer 28

A window of time where one must learn an ability to ever possess that ability at all.

Question 29

Sensitive Period of Development

Answer 29

An interval where it is easier for one to gain knowledge easier and are more receptive to learning.

Question 30

Sign Language vs. Spoken Language

Answer 30

Sign language has all the same features of spoken language. Has it's own phonemes, morphemes, syntax and extralinguistic information

Question 31

Generativity

Answer 31

The ability to create an infinite amount of string of words to communicate what we are trying to say in the context.

Question 32

Teaching nonhuman animals language

Answer 32

Animals lack the range and control of their vocal tract that humans have and they are unable to have the same phonemes. Animals also cannot master syntax

Question 33

Reading Automaticity

Answer 33

The process where the brain reads words without even having to try. How you an read things in passing like road signs or advertisement posters.

Question 34

The Stroop Effect

Answer 34

Proven by the stroop test that reading automaticity occurs. When given the task to say out loud the color of the ink of a word and not the actual word itself, people who have mastered reading have a difficult time performing this task and often read out the word.

Question 35

Whole-word Recognition

Answer 35

A cognitive shortcut where humans are able to recognize and memorize common words so that they do to have to sound them out everytime they read them.

Question 36

Phonetic Decomposition

Answer 36

The process used when learning to read and sound out words, where you have to understand how the letters and their sounds fit together to give the word meaning.