Chapter 8

Question 1

Thinking

Answer 1

mental activity/processing information; includes learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, deciding

Question 2

Cognitive economy

Answer 2

investing as little mental energy as possible unless its necessary to do more, referred to as fast and frugal thinking

Question 3

thin slicing

Answer 3

our ability to extract useful information from small bits of behaviour

Question 4

cognitive bias

Answer 4

systematic error in thinking

Question 5

what is the representative heuristic and how can it lead to cognitive bias

Answer 5

heuristic that judges the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype (estimating the likelihood of an event based on past experience). This can lead to overgeneralizations due to our tendency to be poor at considering base rates(base rate neglect). an example of the representative heuristic is stereotyping, demonstrated using thought experiments (what do you think about william)

Question 6

what is the availability heuristic and how can it lead to cognitive bias

Answer 6

estimating the likelihood of an occurance based on the ease with which it comes to mind, can mislead us as our experiences can be biased

Question 7

hindsight bias

Answer 7

our tendency to overestimate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome, “I knew it all along” effect.

Question 8

framing

Answer 8

the way a question is worded can influence the decisions people make.

Question 9

Top-down processing

Answer 9

filling in the gaps of missing information using experience and background knowledge

Question 10

bottom up processing

Answer 10

processing from info received, constructing meaning by building up understanding through experience

Question 11

concept

Answer 11

our general knowledge about objects, actions, and things that share core properties, an example of top-down processing

Question 12

schema

Answer 12

concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, and ideas relate to each other, an example of top-down processing

Question 13

system 1 thinking

Answer 13

rapid and intuitive, below concious awareness

Question 14

system 2 thinking

Answer 14

slow and analytical, deliberate thinking

Question 15

framing

Answer 15

the way a question is worded can influence the decisions people make

Question 16

what is problem solving and what are the 2 approaches?

Answer 16

generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal, the 2 approached are heuristics and algorithms

Question 17

algorithm aproach to problem solving

Answer 17

step-by-step procedures for solving problems; requires analysis, is slow, rigid and inflexible

Question 18

heuristic approach to problem solving

Answer 18

mental shortcuts; relying on past experiences/going with our gut

Question 19

analogies

Answer 19

can solve problems by drawing similarities from 2 different situations

Question 20

paralysis by analysis/ decision fatigue

Answer 20

brain becomes confused/overwhelmed by excessive information

Question 21

neuroeconomics

Answer 21

study of how the brain works when making financial decisions, helps us understand why decision making goes wrong sometimes for some people

Question 22

what are the 3 obstacles to problem solving

Answer 22

salience of surface similarities, mental sets, and functional fixedness

Question 23

salience of surface similarities

Answer 23

how attention grabbing something is, we tend to focus on the superficial aspects of a problem, and try to solve it the same way we would solve problems with similar characteristics

Question 24

mental sets

Answer 24

getting stuck following a strategy that has worked in the past, makes it difficult to think of alternative strategies

Question 25

functional fixedness

Answer 25

we get stuck thinking that an object can only be used for its intended purpose

Question 26

linguistic determinism

Answer 26

our language defines our thinking

Question 27

linguistic relativity

Answer 27

view that characteristics of language shape out thought processes but don't define our thinking

Question 28

problem solving

Answer 28

generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal

Question 29

computer analogy of the model of the mind

Answer 29

the brains algorithms are like preprogrammed abilities, brain runs data through "software" program and spits out answers

Question 30

embodied model of the mind

Answer 30

out thoughts are not simply controlled by our brains, external factors such as our bodies and environments shape out thinking

Question 31

4 levels of language analysis

Answer 31

1.phonemes 2.morphemes 3.syntax 4.extralinguistic information

Question 32

phonemes

Answer 32

the sound of language

Question 33

morphemes

Answer 33

the smallest unit of meaningful speech ex. re, ish, un,

Question 34

syntax

Answer 34

grammatical rules governing how we compose words into meaningful strings

Question 35

extralinguistic information

Answer 35

elements of communication that aren't a part of language but are crucial to interpreting it, ex. facial expressions, tone

Question 36

semantics

Answer 36

meaning derived from words and sentences

Question 37

dialect

Answer 37

language variations used by a group of people who share geographical proximity or ethnic background

Question 38

sound symbolism/onomatopeia

Answer 38

certain speech sounds are associated with particular meanings ex. quack/ding

Question 39

one word stage

Answer 39

when children use one word to convey entire thoughts

Question 40

over-extension

Answer 40

when a child uses a word for too many things, ex. every 4-legged furry animal is a dog

Question 41

under-extension

Answer 41

when a child doesn't use a word for enough cases, ex. their family cat is a kitty but not other cats

Question 42

metalinguistic insight

Answer 42

awareness of how language is structured and used; bilingual kids has higher meta-linguistic insight

Question 43

homesign

Answer 43

when deaf children make up their own signs when born to hearing parents

Question 44

Imitation theory of language acquisition

Answer 44

children learn by imitating

Question 45

generative language

Answer 45

allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in different ways

Question 46

generative/nativist account of language acquisition

Answer 46

Chomsky; children come into the world with some basic knowledge of how language works

Question 47

language acquisition device

Answer 47

nativist account; hypothetical organ in the brain where knowledge of syntax resides

Question 48

social pragmatics theory of language acquisition

Answer 48

children use context of conversation to infer its topic

Question 49

general cognitive processing theory of language acquisition

Answer 49

children's ability to learn language results from general skills that they apply across a variety of activities; children learn language from the ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns

Question 50

whole word recognition

Answer 50

readin strategy that involves identifying common words based on appearance without having to sound them out

Question 51

phonetic decomposition

Answer 51

readin strategy that involves sounding out words

Question 52

anomatopoeia

Answer 52

imitating sounds

Question 53

high-amplitude sucking procedure

Answer 53

technique used to test sound distinguishing abilities in infants