Chapter 8

Question 1

memory- what is it?

Answer 1

Processes that allow us to record and retrieve experiences and information

Question 2

Memory as information processing- Three basic processes of memory

Answer 2

Encoding = Translating into neural code
Storage = Retained over time
Retrieval = Pulled back out

Question 3

Separate and interacting components of three stage model of memory

Answer 3

Temporary & long lasting

Does not correspond to specific brain structures

Question 4

Components of three stage model of memory

Answer 4

Sensory memory
Working (short-term) memory
Long term memory

Question 5

Sensory Memory

Answer 5

Sensory Input—-Sensory Registers

holds sensory information just long enough for it to be recognized

-composed of different subsystems called sensory registers– which are the intial information processors

Question 6

Working/ short term memory

Answer 6

Encoding—Rehearsal

contentious awareness, consciously processes, codes and “works on” information, limited on how much can be stored

Question 7

Long term memory

Answer 7

Encoding—-Retrieval

Question 8

Sensory Memory

Answer 8

Briefly holds sensory information
	iconic stores - visual information
		Lasts fractions of a second
	echoic stores - auditory information
		Lasts about 2 seconds
		Partial trace can last longer

Sensory registers are initial information processors

Question 9

Short term/ working memory

Answer 9

Temporarily holds LIMITED AMOUNT of information
Stores and processes information of which we are conscious

Working memory
–Codes and ‘works on’ information

Question 10

Short term memory- Mental representations / memory codes comes in Various Forms

Answer 10

Images (visual), sounds (phonological), meaning (semantic), action (motor)
Does not correspond to form of original stimulus
Errors often phonetic
Confuse words or letters that sound alike not looked alike
E.g., B or V; man or mad

Question 11

Capcity and duration of short term memory

Answer 11

• -Magical number = 7 ± 2 (Miller, 1956)
• -5-9 meaningful items
• -Digit span task

Shelf-life’ of 20 seconds for information
Rapidly lost unless we actively ‘do something’ with it
(studied this by interfering with capability to rehearse)

Question 12

how to increase short- term memory

Answer 12

Chunking
Combining individual items into larger units of meaning
Most effective when ‘chunk’ is meaningful
	MRCCHIRNSERC
		Researcher who applies for grants
		MRC  CHIR  NSERC have meaning
	For others
	NHLCFLNBA
	NHL CFL NBA may be meaningful

(phone numbers are 9 didgets so we break them into 3 peices much easier to remember then 9 individual bits)

Question 13

Extending duration of short term memory

Answer 13

1) Maintenance rehearsal
	Simple repetition
(repeating number before dialing)
2)Elaborative rehearsal
	Focus on meaning
	More effective

Question 14

Short term memory as working memory

Answer 14

‘Mental workspace’
Stores information, actively processes it, supports problem solving and planning
Used for solving problems such as:
Adding 2 numbers; visual ‘map’ of a route
How many windows are there in the structure where you live? How did you answer this question?

Question 15

Short term memory at “work” 3 components

Answer 15

1) Phonological loop
auditory storage
2) Visual-spatial sketchpad
store of mental images and spatial information
3) Central executive
directs attention, recall from LTM, integration of input
Involvement of prefrontal cortex
(frontal cortex injury impulsive because dont have very much selective attention)

Question 16

Long term Memory

Answer 16

Library of durable stored memories
Storage capacity unlimited
LTM can endure for a lifetime
(permanent and unlimited) why do we forget somethings not that we dont have info we just have troubles accessing info– called interferance

Question 17

Want to be remembered among a list of speakers (or students presenting their work)
Where in the line up do you want to be?

Answer 17

beginning, middle or end?
serial position effect:
beginning and end easiest to recall

Question 18

Distinction between short-term and long-term memory seen in ‘serial position effect’

Answer 18

Presented with unrelated words
Recall as many as you can
(recall varies with position in the list, beginning and end far more likely to be recalled beginning and end reflect differnt memory processses)

Question 19

U-shaped pattern as function of position in series

Answer 19

Two components
Primacy (beginning) & recency (end) effect
Superior recall of early & most recent words
beginning and end more easily recalled

(words at beginning more likely to be transfered to long term memory and the words at the end recalled because they were still in short term memorry when asked to recall)

Question 20

Primacy effect

Answer 20

info transferred to long -term memory
(when start learning list of words… “dog” start repeating word to yourself dog, cat, .. dog, cat, house .. dog getting rehearsed the most and got to long term memory

Question 21

Recency effect

Answer 21

information still in short-term memory, effect diminished if time delay before recall

lancer and kunince??

Question 22

Encoding

Answer 22

More effective encoding into LTM = greater likelihood of retrieval
( in your head you remember what u had last monday but no special cues so you cant recall it)

Question 23

Effortful Processing

Answer 23

Intentional and conscious

Studying for this course!

Question 24

Automatic Processing

Answer 24

Unintentional and requiring minimal attention

Recalling what you did yesterday

Question 25

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Answer 25

1) Depth of processing increases recall 2) POTATO - is word in capitals (structural) (low) 3) Horse - does it rhyme with course? (phonological) (higher) 4) TABLE - does it fit in sentence ‘The man peeled the __’ (semantic) (recall goes up- integrate into what u know)

Question 26

Maintenance vs. Elaborative

Answer 26

Maintenance Rote repetition of information Not an optimal method ``` Elaborative Focuses on information’s meaning Organizing Understanding Applying to one’s life Relating to already learned concepts ```

Question 27

Organizing information

Answer 27

- -Organizing information in way that is meaningful can enhance memory - -Scheme serves as cue for retrieving information

Question 28

Hierarchy and chunking

Answer 28

Hierarchy Memory is enhanced by associations Enhances understanding of how elements are related Chunking Combining items into larger units of meaning

Question 29

Mnemonic Devices

Answer 29

"the art of improving memory" memory aids Makes information uniquely organized for individual Hierarchies - Relating items Chunking - Combining items Acronyms - Creating easier to recall items Some argue is useful only if familiar with material

Question 30

Visual imagry

Answer 30

--Dual coding theory Memory enhanced if use both verbal and visual codes (house what it sounds like and can visualize it) Method of loci (loci is latin for places) Use imaginary physical environment and placement of images (learn long speeches ) --More difficult with some stimuli Easier with concrete objects than with abstract concepts E.g., associating image with word ‘jealousy’

Question 31

Prior knowledge shapes encoding

Answer 31

1) Schemas - mental frame work, organized pattern of thought (sexism, racism) 2) Create Preceptual sets - help organize and interpret information (sexism, racism) 3) Development of expert knowledge Process of developing schemas E.g., chess players, coaches, musicians, & psychology students! 4) Experts rely on perceiving ‘meaning’ in a pattern

Question 32

Associative networks

Answer 32

Network of associated ideas and concepts Each concept represented by ‘node’ Nodes tightly clustered for highly related concepts (nodes associated with each other, activate that node it spreads to surrounding nodes start with one concept and move back towards other concept)

Question 33

Spreading activation

Answer 33

Activation of one concept activates other concepts = Priming ... if show us a stimulus exposure to it later effects performance (advertising.. dont pay attention to it but when a decision has to be made we saw an add that primed us to buy it) priming: activation of one concept by another

Question 34

Memory as a neural Network

Answer 34

neural networks (each item in memory is represented by a pattern or set of nodes)---> nodes activated simultaneously (referred to as parallel distributed processing (PDP) models)

Question 35

Types of long term memory

Answer 35

``` Consider the following What is your birthday? Use the word ‘justice’ in a sentence Stand up and throw a ball All call upon long-term information you have but each is different Some is unique to you Some is general to all of us Some require physical movement ```

Question 36

Declarative memory- two subcategories

Answer 36

``` involves factual knowledge Two subcategories Episodic Personal experiences (‘episodes’ of your life) Semantic General factual knowledge ```

Question 37

Procedural

Answer 37

Non-declarative memory Reflected in skills & actions Some classically conditioned responses

Question 38

Explicit memory

Answer 38

Conscious or intentional memory retrieval (exam) recognition- multiple choice recall- short answer/ long answer

Question 39

Implicit memory

Answer 39

Memory influences behavior but … No conscious awareness Priming tasks shown list of words - includes STORE - not required to consciously remember them later shown STO __ respond store and not stork = implicit memory (word completion) riding a bike, driving a car

Question 40

Retrieval-- Multiple & self-generated cues

Answer 40

bits of information that will help u remember other bits of information 1)retrieval cues Stimuli that lead to activation of information stored in LTM 2) Multiple cues lead to better retrieval Involves deeper processing 3) Self-generated cues Have personal meaning

Question 41

Retrievel of Distinctive events

Answer 41

Greater chance of etching vivid, clear long-term memories | something unique about them less likely to interfere with things breakfast every morning

Question 42

Flashbulb memories

Answer 42

vivid clear recollections like a "snapshot" in time 911 attacks people think they are more accurate then they actually are (certainty of memory not accuracy of memory

Question 43

Clear or Foggy?

Answer 43

often inaccurately recalled

Question 44

context, state and mood: Encoding Specificity Principle

Answer 44

Memory enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those present during encoding Stimuli associated with event may be encoded as part of event E.g., exams written in the same lecture hall as where the lecture was delivered

Question 45

Context dependant memory

Answer 45

Easier to remember something in same environment where encoded (disadvantage when put in a different room to right final)

Question 46

State-dependant memory

Answer 46

Ability to retrieve better when internal state at retrieval matches that at encoding (mood and intoxication) (if you are high on caffine when studying you should be in the same state when taking the exam)

Question 47

mood-congruent recall

Answer 47

Tend to recall information or events congruent with current mood (when happy tend to recall positive events)

Question 48

Improving Memory: what works?

Answer 48

3 broad strategies External aids General strategies Mnemonic devices

Question 49

Improving memory

Answer 49

``` Elaborative rehearsal Understand it Link to other information Make it meaningful Organize information Textbooks organized with chapters and outlines! Build own scaffold of organization Overlearn Continued rehearsal Distribute learning over time Cramming the night before is not good! Minimize interference (turn the tv and phone off ect.) ```

Question 50

Forgetting: why do we forget?

Answer 50

Encoding failure Lack of attention? Lack of deep processing? E.g., failure to encode details that are not important Decay of memory trace Long-term physical trace in nervous system fades away over time and with disuse (new material replaces old material (short term)) Interference Theory Information forgotten because other items in LTM impair ability to retrieve it

Question 51

Interference Theory

Answer 51

Proactive Interference Past material interferes with recall of newer material Retroactive Interference New information interferes with ability to recall older information (thats why it is good to study right before you sleep)

Question 52

Tip-Of-The-Tongue (TOT) State

Answer 52

On verge of remembering but can't recall | meet people in unfamiliar context

Question 53

Motivated forgetting

Answer 53

Based on Freudian concepts Conscious or unconscious processes? E.g. Repression of anxiety-arousing memories (traumatic events sit in your unconscious and cant repress the memory)

Question 54

Controversial

Answer 54

Difficult to verify

Question 55

Types of Amnesia

Answer 55

Retrograde Amnesia Memory loss for events before amnesia Anterograde Amnesia (more common) Memory loss for events after amnesia (causes of amnesia...anoxia---> low oxygen to the brain or low vitamin B levels) blows to the head, heart attacks,

Question 56

Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 56

Anterograde amnesia is first sign of it.. --Severe retrograde and anterograde amnesia retrograde after long term alzheimer's disease loosing neurons that go from bottom of the brain to top,

Question 57

Infantile Amnesia

Answer 57

Memory loss for early childhood experiences | Typically for events before ages of 3-4

Question 58

Causes?

Answer 58

immature brain, encoding failures | stored in a while you cant access when older

Question 59

Retrospective Memory vs. prospective memory

Answer 59

Retro: memory for past events (rely on for exams) Pro: remembering to perform activity in future (remembering to put the towels in dryer in the future)

Question 60

Changes in prospective memory

Answer 60

Evidence is mixed | Elderly = some difficulty with time-signaled tasks

Question 61

Memory is a constructive process

Answer 61

We do not use rewind button to activate memories! Memory is a constructive (or reconstructive) process --Piece together bits of information in ways that intuitively “make sense” ( we fill in the spaces with what we think, memory is like swiss cheese) --Often highly inaccurate --Schemas can distort memories (bias on the world)

Question 62

Distortion & Schemas

Answer 62

--Schemas – general ideas about how events happen --Boundary extension (draw a bigger picture then what was actually there) --Remember scenes as being ‘wider’ Look at photo Draw scene Scene is wider

Question 63

Misinformation

Answer 63

Distortion of memory by misleading post-event information Can affect eyewitness testimony Can occur because of source confusion (bits get added and deleted) (lost source think you know something but cant remember why)

Question 64

Accuracy of children's Memories

Answer 64

Critical issue = Suggestive Questioning Can distort children’s memories Younger children more susceptible to misleading & suggestive questions Observers could not tell false from true reports by children Not intentionally lying / believe memory is accurate Non-suggestive interviewing is crucial- "anything you want to tell me" don't prompt them (kids try hard to tell a story you what you want to hear) ( kids not trying to lie, but trying to remember and tell things they think interveiwer wants to hear)

Question 65

Are memories accurate

Answer 65

If accurate, what caused memory to be forgotten? | can get people to "remember" things that didnt actually happen

Question 66

Controversial

Answer 66

Difficult to demonstrate experimentally | Consciously forgotten?

Question 67

Full/ partial memory loss for traumatic events

Answer 67

Accurate memories can return

Question 68

Search for engram

Answer 68

Engram = physical trace stored in brain when memory formed - engram doesnt exist - memory stored throughout the brain

Question 69

Where are memories stored in the brain?- three basic approaches

Answer 69

``` Human Lesion Studies Study memory loss due to brain damage Nonhuman Animal Lesion Studies Deliberate damage to brain regions Brain-Imaging Studies ```

Question 70

Hippocampus

Answer 70

Encoding station | Convert short-term memories to long-term

Question 71

Memory consolidation

Answer 71

``` Binding process in the brain for: Where something happened What the scene or people looked like Sounds heard Meaning of events (specific information it linked with certain cues and can be used as a memory cue) ```

Question 72

Cerebral cortex

Answer 72

Encoding information from sensory registers Store semantic information (primary sensory cortex)

Question 73

Prefrontal cortex

Answer 73

Involved in functions of working memory Deep processing increased brain activity in specific regions of LEFT prefrontal cortex

Question 74

Thalamus

Answer 74

Role is unclear Damage results in extensive anterograde & retrograde amnesia (switch

Question 75

amygdala

Answer 75

Emotional aspects of memory

Question 76

Cerebellum

Answer 76

Procedural memory | riding a bike ect

Question 77

Nervous system form memory?

Answer 77

Synaptic Change Kandel (2001) – work with Aplysia (slugs) Structural changes resulted in greater synaptic transmission Long-Term Potentiation LTP = enduring increase in synaptic strength Synaptic connections activated more easily (what kind of permanent or semi-permanent changes to learning things)

Question 78

Accurate and Fabricated Memory

Answer 78

Emotional memories may be associated with limbic system activity Increased activity in amygdala and frontal lobes Accuracy of retrieved memories moderated by activity in many areas