Chapters 1-3

Question 1

It is important to have knowledge of anatomy and physiology to be able to understand how the body moves. Specifically, we need to know something about?

Answer 1

i. How our brain works (to understand the central and peripheral nervous systems).
ii. How our muscles work (how they produce force so we can overcome gravity and our own body mass to move).
iii. How the cardiovascular system works and why we need it to move (i.e., to provide a transport system so that oxygen and other nutrients are delivered to muscle cells so they will have sufficient energy to produce the right amount of force to move).
iv. How the pulmonary system works and why we need it to move (in what circumstances do we need oxygen to move and in what cases can we move without it?).
v. What the skeletal system is for and why we need it to be able to move (i.e., how bones provide rigidity and support for muscles to attach to, and pull against, so that our limbs and joints will move in consistent and predictable ways).

Question 2

What is Motor Control?

Answer 2

Understanding the mechanisms responsible for neuromuscular function (i.e., movement production and control).

Question 3

What is Motor Learning?

Answer 3

Understanding the processes of learning that are involved with skill acquisition.

Question 4

What is Motor Development?

Answer 4

The study of the continuous, age-related processes that influence movement. (For e.g., why 6-year-old children can write better than 2-year-olds).

Question 5

What is Motor Behaviour?

Answer 5

A broad, comprehensive term that is used to refer to the study of human movement from the perspectives of both development and learning (i.e., it seeks to understand movement in a very broad sense by taking into account changes that occur as the result of development, as well as those that occur as the result of practice and instruction).

Question 6

What is a skill?

Answer 6

A skill is a task that achieves a specific goal. (Eg. Being a good leader).

Question 7

What is a motor skill?

Answer 7

• A motor skill requires voluntary body and/or limb movement to achieve a specific task goal.
• Motor skills need to be learned and practiced on a regular basis.
• Motor skills are associated with many different types of occupational and recreational activities.
• Examples include (but are certainly not limited to) juggling, cycling, writing, drawing, playing video games, etc.

Question 8

What is an action?

Answer 8

• Actions are synonymous with motor skills; i.e., they are goal-directed responses that consist of body and/or limb movements.
• Most actions are composed of complex movement sequences.

Question 9

What are movements?

Answer 9

Movements are behavioural characteristics of a specific joint, limb (combination of joints) or combination of limbs.

(Eg. Different people will swing a golf club in different ways due to varying degrees of strength, skill and flexibility (in other words, the action is the same—they hit the golf ball—but the specific movements or sequences of movements of their joints may be different).

Question 10

What are involuntary movements?

Answer 10

(also known as reflexes) occur at the level of the spinal cord (as opposed to the cerebral level, or brain, which is responsible for voluntary movements). One of the benefits of reflexes is that they are non-volitional (i.e., you don’t have to think about moving to move). This means that you can move in response to a stimulus in less time.

Question 11

What are reflexes?

Answer 11

Are fast electrical circuits (like a light switch). They work to provide the body with the quickest response to stimuli in which some type of movement is required (for e.g., touching a hot stove). One of the primary purposes of reflexes is to protect the body from injury, and they are frequently used as the basis for a variety of neurological tests.

Question 12

What monosynaptic stretch reflex?

Answer 12

• The simplest type of reflex, (an example of which, the knee-jerk reflex, most people have experienced when going to visit their doctor).
• A monosynaptic reflex literally means one synapse, which refers to the connection between two neurons (i.e., in the case of the stretch reflex, the synapse is between one sensory and one motor neuron).

Question 13

What is the process of the monosynaptic reflex? (Lots of information, explain).

Answer 13

i. This creates a pull or slight stretch in the quadriceps group, which the patellar tendon is attached to.
ii. The stretch in the muscles is detected by motion sensors embedded within the muscle called muscle spindles. When stimulated, a muscle spindle will send an electrical impulse (called an action potential) along the sensory neuron to the spinal cord.
iii. In the gray matter of the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses (or connects to) a motor neuron, which takes the impulse back to the muscle it came from (in this case).

• The response of this reflex is excitatory; that is its purpose is to contract the muscles that were stretched, and that a concentric contraction (i.e., shortening) of the quadriceps muscles causes the knee joint to extend.
• The figure also shows a second circuit that has an interneuron (this reflex/circuit has 2 synapses), which travels to the hamstring group of muscles. This pathway has an inhibitory effect (i.e., the impulse prevents the muscle from contracting). The two opposing muscle groups that move the knee are the quadriceps (knee extension) and hamstrings (knee flexion).
• In this case, the quadriceps group is known as the agonist (produces the action of knee extension)
• Whereas the hamstrings are the antagonist (they act to oppose or resist the action of extension).
• Reciprocal Inhibition: For movement to occur, it is important for the central nervous system (which refers to the brain and spinal cord) to simultaneously excite and inhibit agonist and antagonistic muscle groups, respectively.

Question 14

What are One-Dimensional Classification Schemes?

Answer 14

(i.e., classified according to a single criterion or characteristic) can be useful for broad or quick classifications of motor skills.

Question 15

The 3 Types of One-Dimensional Classifications?

Answer 15

1. Muscle Based
2. Movement Based
3. Environmentally Based

Question 16

2 types of muscle based?

Answer 16

Gross Motor Skills

Fines Motor Skills

Question 17

What are gross motor skills?

Answer 17

a. Skills that require large muscle groups
b. In general, these skills require more force and less precision
c. e.g., cycling (quadriceps and hamstrings)

Question 18

What are fine motor skills?

Answer 18

a. Skills that require small muscle groups
b. In general, these skills require less force and more precision
c. e.g., performing heart or brain surgery (forearm flexors and extensors)

Question 19

3 types of movement based?

Answer 19

Discrete Motor Skills
Serial Motor Skills
Continuous Motor Skills

Question 20

What are discrete motor skills?

Answer 20

a. Consist of distinct movements that have identifiable beginning and end points
b. e.g., a golf swings.

Question 21

What are serial motor skills?

Answer 21

a. Represent a special category of discrete skills
b. Consist of a series of discrete movement sequences that are linked together in a particular order
c. e.g., a gymnastics routine

Question 22

What are continuous motor skills?

Answer 22

a. Movements that are cyclic or repetitive

b. e.g., swimming and jogging

Question 23

2 types of Environmentally (Object or Context) Based?

Answer 23

Closed Motor Skills

Open motor skills

Question 24

What are Closed Motor Skills?

Answer 24

a. The context (or object if the skill involves an object) does not change during the performance of the skill
b. The performer typically controls the movement
c. The skill is self-paced
d. e.g., cycling on a recumbent bike or shooting free-throws (the distance and height of the basket doesn’t change)

Question 25

What are Open Motor Skills?

Answer 25

a. Skills performed in non-stable environments; objects or contexts may change during the performance of the skill
b. Externally-paced (timing is important)
c. e.g., playing table tennis (the speed and direction of the ball are constantly changing so that each swing is slightly different)

Question 26

What are Two-Dimensional Classification Scheme?

Answer 26

(or system) there are two classification characteristics. This type of classification scheme provides a basis for understanding performance demands for a wide range of motor skills and can be used for various purposes, one of which is physical rehabilitation.

Question 27

The two classification criteria used in Gentile’s Taxonomy are?

Answer 27

Environmental Context and Action Function. Each classification criterion has two subdivisions.

Question 28

What is environmental context?

Answer 28

This criterion attempts to provide information about the context in which the skill takes place.

Question 29

What are the 2 sub divisions of environmental context?

Answer 29

a. Regulatory Conditions – is the object or context in which the skill takes place stationary or in motion?
i. e.g., bowling pins (stationary) or tennis ball (in motion).

b. Inter-Trial Variability (yes or no) – does the skill change from trial to trial?
i. e.g., playing 18 holes of golf (every swing you take will likely be different) or hitting golf balls on the driving range (each time you hit the ball you are attempting to produce the same swing).

Question 30

What is action function?

Answer 30

This criterion attempts to provide information about the purpose of the movement itself.

Question 31

What are the 2 sub divisions of action function?

Answer 31

a. Body Orientation – is the body stable or in transport?
i. e.g., playing first base (stable) or being an outfielder (moving to catch the ball).

b. Object Manipulation (yes or no).
i. e.g., a quarterback (has to manipulate the football) or 400 m swimmer (no object manipulation).

Question 32

What are the categories of motor performance? (And their sub divisions).

Answer 32

1. Performance outcome measures
   a. Reaction Time (RT)
   b. Error Measures
2. Performance production measures
   a. Kinematics
   b. Kinetics
   c. Electromyography (EMG)

Question 33

What is reaction time?

Answer 33

The time interval between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of a movement response. RT can be subdivided into the premotor time and the motor time.

Question 34

What is an Electromyography (EMG)?

Answer 34

One of the best ways to understand the process of movement initiation in response to a stimulus.

• Records the electrical activity of a muscle or group of muscles and therefore indicates the timing of muscle activation.
• The process of initiating a movement in response to a stimulus (for e.g., hearing the sound of a starter’s pistol or seeing a traffic light change from red to green) can be subdivided into several parts.

Question 35

What is the of initiating a movement in response to a stimulus? (8)

Answer 35

I. The warning signal. This provides an indication that a stimulus is about to occur. For example, the command “Take your marks” and the yellow light on a traffic light are both warning signals which indicate that something important is about to occur.

II. The foreperiod. This refers to the time period between the warning signal and the presentation of the stimulus (which initiates the movement). An example of a foreperiod is the time between the yellow light and the red light on a traffic light.

III. Stimulus. This refers to an important event in the environment that is detected by one of the body’s senses (typically a sound or a light).

IV. Premotor time. This refers to the time between the presentation of the stimulus and the activation of the muscle (or muscles) that will be used to produce the movement (as recorded by the EMG electrodes).

V. Motor time. This refers to the time between the activation of the muscle(s) responsible for producing the movement and the actual movement of the limb or joint itself.

VI. Reaction time (RT). Reaction time is defined as the time interval between the presentation of the stimulus and the initiation of limb movement. Therefore, reaction time consists of (is equal to) the premotor time and the motor time (i.e., RT can be subdivided into the premotor time and the motor time).

VII. Movement time (MT). Movement time is defined as the time interval between the initiation of the movement and the termination (completion) of the movement (i.e., literally how long it takes to complete the movement).

VIII. Response time. Response time is defined as the time it takes from stimulus presentation to movement completion. Consequently, response time is equal to the reaction time plus the movement time. (RT + MT).

Question 36

What is simple reaction time?

Answer 36

• The most basic situation occurs when a person reacts to a single stimulus with only one response (i.e., only one response is possible or suitable).
• For instance, you may want to measure RT in a swimming event where there is only one stimulus, the sound of the starter’s pistol, and one response, moving off the block to enter the water as quickly as possible.

Question 37

What is Choice Reaction Time?

Answer 37

The situation involves multiple stimuli, with each stimulus having a specific response.

• The key difference compared to the simple reaction time situation is that one has to choose the appropriate response according to which stimulus is presented.
• The most common example of a choice reaction time situation is that presented by a traffic light. Each light has a specific colour and required response (i.e., stop, caution or go). However, distractions (for e.g., talking on a cell phone), fatigue and other factors may inhibit our ability to choose the correct response.

Question 38

What is Discrimination Reaction Time?

Answer 38

Refers to situations in which there are multiple stimuli, but only one of the stimuli requires a response.

• Eg. you’ll see a series of lights known as a Christmas Tree, which is used at the start in drag racing. There are multiple stimuli presented in sequence as pairs of lights, but the only pair of lights that requires a response is the 2nd last pair in the row (i.e., the “green” lights). In this example, you can learn to anticipate when the last set of lights will go on to make your start even faster (which is what drivers learn to do when racing).

Question 39

What are error measures?

Answer 39

The measurement of performance error is particularly important for motor skills in which accuracy is an objective.

• There are several different ways that error can be measured.

Question 40

What are the three basic error measures for discrete skill?

Answer 40

a. Absolute Error (AE)
b. Constant Error (CE)
c. Variable Error (VE)

Each of these error measures tells you something different about the performance of motor skills.

Question 41

What is accuracy?

Answer 41

is an important component and requirement for many different kinds of skills, but several of the more obvious examples include kicking a soccer ball, shooting or passing a hockey puck, performing surgery or playing a musical instrument.

Question 42

What is Absolute Error (AE)?

Answer 42

A general accuracy index that provides information about the size of the error (error magnitude) in absolute terms. Its formula is Σ absolute ((xi-T)/N).

• Absolute error does not provide any specific information about the location of the error with respect to the target (for example, a slap shot can miss high or low, or to the left or right of the net).

Question 43

What is Constant Error (CE)?

Answer 43

In addition to the quantity or size of the error, constant error also provides information about the direction of those errors, and will indicate whether or not the performer has a performance bias. Σ (xi-T)/N

• An example of a performance bias would be having the basketball always fall short of the target on free throw attempts (or consistently throwing fastballs to the outside of the plate).
• It means, quite literally, that the performer commits a constant error, by missing the target in the same way on each trial.
• The presence of a performance bias indicates that the performer has learned the basic movement pattern of the skill, but has a specific problem with the execution of one or more of its components.

Question 44

What is Variable Error (VE)?

Answer 44

Provides information about the variability of the performance. Variability is the opposite of consistency. (Σ (xi-M)^2/N, where M is the average shot.

• The more variable the performance, the less consistent it will be, and vice versa.
• Given that consistency in motor skill performance is an important attribute, variable error provides important information about how well the performer has learned the basic movement pattern of the skill.
• For example, beginners typically make lots of errors as they learn a skill and are very inconsistent, because they are in the process of learning the basic movement pattern.
• As learning progresses, their consistency of motor performance will improve.

Question 45

What is Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE)?

Answer 45

In the case of continuous skills such as running, cycling or swimming, an error measure that can be used to assess performance is the root mean squared error (RMSE). Eg. The pitcher’s curve on graph. Elite vs. learner.

Question 46

How to calculate Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE)?

Answer 46

HOW TO CALCULATE:
• To calculate RMSE, you would calculate the difference between the first data point on the stimulus line and the first data point on the response line (the error) and then square the value.

• The squaring is done so that negative values do not cancel the positive values.
• You would then do the same thing for all the remaining data points on the line (in this case you would have 20 different values).
• Then you would add up all the differences of all the data points (i.e., find the sum of the squared deviations), divide by the total number of points and then find the square root.
• This gives you the RMSE. The smaller the RMSE, the closer the line is to the criterion (the stimulus line in this case).
• Thus, knowing the RMSE would give you some measurable (i.e., quantifiable) assessment of performance.
• Key point: The RMSE is the difference, on average, of a series of data points from a benchmark or criterion set of data points (in this case the stimulus curve, which represents the optimal movement pattern of the elbow for the skill of throwing a fastball), measured along the vertical axis.

Question 47

What are Performance Production Measures?

Answer 47

• Concerned specifically with those aspects of motor skill performance that relate to the production of movement, rather than its outcome.
• As such, the types of measurements in this category focus on describing how the limbs and/or joints move during the performance of a skill, as well as which muscles are responsible for producing the action.

Question 48

What are the three categories of performance production measures?

Answer 48

1) Kinematics
2) Kinetics
3) Electromyography (EMG)

Question 49

What are kinematics?

Answer 49

Parameters which describe motion without any regard to what causes it.

• Kinematics is a term used in physics to describe three levels of analysis that can be used to describe the motion of any object.
• The first level is concerned with measuring the position, and then change of position (i.e., displacement), of an object in three-dimensional space.

o Displacement (∆x) = the change (∆) in position. Position can be measured in one, two or three dimensions (directions), and are usually designated as x, y, or z.

• The second level, which measures the change in position relative to the amount of time in which it occurs (i.e., velocity), is dependent on the first, and provides more information about the object’s motion.

o Velocity (∆x/∆t) = the rate of change of position (x) for a specific time interval (t). The symbol for velocity is v.

• The third level, acceleration, measures the change in velocity for a specific period of time.

o Acceleration (∆v/∆t) = the rate of change of velocity (v) for a specific time interval (t). The symbol for acceleration is a.

Question 50

What are angles?

Answer 50

(e.g., joint angles) are defined by two lines (segments) and a vertex (point where the two lines meet). The vertex of the angle corresponds to the joint centre, or axis of rotation.

• The only difference between angular kinematics and linear kinematics is that different symbols are used.
o In angular kinematics, the symbol θ (theta) is used for displacement, ω (omega) is used for velocity and α (alpha) is used for acceleration.

• Angular displacement (θ) = the change in angular position (i.e., ∆θ). Note that θ is used both as the symbol for angle and as the symbol for angular displacement (i.e, the change in angle).
• Angular velocity (ω) = the rate of change of angular position (θ) for a specific time interval (t); i.e, ∆θ/∆t. The symbol for angular velocity is ω.
• Angular acceleration (α) = the rate of change of angular velocity (ω) for a specific time interval (t); i.e., ∆ω/∆t. The symbol for angular acceleration is α.

Question 51

Can motion be linear and angular?

Answer 51

Motion (and therefore kinematics) can be linear (the object moves in a straight line) or angular (the object rotates about a fixed point, an axis, like the hub of a wheel). When applying angular kinematics to human movement, joint positions (angles) are measured so that angular velocities and accelerations can be calculated.

Question 52

What are kinetics?

Answer 52

Those parameters that are related to understanding the causes of motion.

KINETIC PARAMETERS:
Force 
Torque 
Impulse – Momentum
Power 
Work 
Energy	F = ma
T = lα
FΔt = mΔv
P = Fv
W = Fd
K = ½mv2

Question 53

How does a EMG work?

Answer 53

EMG works by placing electrodes on the skin, which detect the electrical activity (known as action potentials) traveling from the motor neurons through the skeletal muscle fibres

Question 54

2 types of EMG?

Answer 54

Surface EMG

Intramuscular EMG

Question 55

What is Surface EMG?

Answer 55

Is the most common form of EMG. However, in cases where the electrical activity of a non-superficial (i.e., deep) muscle is required (for e.g., a rotator cuff muscle such as the supraspinatus), needles can be inserted through the skin and into the muscle to record the electrical activity from within the muscle itself.

Question 56

What is Intramuscular EMG?

Answer 56

Both needles and fine-wire EMG (which uses needles to place small hair-like wires within the muscle) are invasive techniques that are not used unless absolutely necessary.

Question 57

About the surface EMG?

Answer 57

• Quick and easy to apply (no discomfort or pain)
• Good for recording superficial muscles; e.g., quadriceps
• Good reliability
• Lower signal than intramuscular EMG
• Represents signal from entire muscle or group
• Potential for crosstalk (refers to the inadvertent recording of other muscles not of interest)

Question 58

About the intramuscular EMG?

Answer 58

• Difficult & discomforting to apply (e.g., subscapularis)
• Good for recording non-superficial muscles; e.g., popliteus
• Poor between-day reliability
• Higher signal than surface EMG
• Represents signal from specific motor units (not necessarily representative of the entire muscle)
• No crosstalk

Question 59

Applications of EMG?

Answer 59

to measure the performance production of specific motor skills.

Question 60

The primary ways in which EMG can be used to assess movement and motor skill performance?

Answer 60

1. To determine the movement or skill specific muscle activity (or inactivity).
2. To determine the magnitude of the activation.
3. To determine and/or compare the pattern of activation in different muscles or in the same muscle(s) between different individuals. This aspect focuses on the timing of the muscle activation.
4. To estimate the amount of force produced by each muscle.
5. To identify the point at which muscles start to fatigue.

Question 61

What are Agonists?

Answer 61

Directly cause the action as a result of their contraction.

Question 62

What are antagonists?

Answer 62

Other muscles that oppose the movement (antagonists) or assist in the production of the movement (synergists) will also be active at different stages of the range of motion.

Question 63

What are Motor Abilities Summary?

Answer 63

The disciplines of motor learning and control typically examine the general processes and principles related to the control (performance) and acquisition (learning) of motor skills.

Question 64

What are Experimental Approach?

Answer 64

Researchers conduct experiments on specific subjects in the hope that what they find is applicable to the general population (this is known as generalizability). – similarities.

Question 65

What are Differential Approach?

Answer 65

Attempts to identify the source of individual differences in motor learning and control.

Question 66

What are Individual Differences?

Answer 66

Stable and enduring differences between individuals with respect to skill performance. These differences are not the same as performance differences; i.e., the differences that occur between movement repetitions or between different days of practice. Differences that occur because someone had a bad swing or a bad day should not be included.

Question 67

What are stable?

Answer 67

means that the performance difference is consistent from trial to trial.

Question 68

What is enduring?

Answer 68

means that the performance difference persists over time.

Question 69

What are motor skills?

Answer 69

Are acquired, they are something that you can learn and get better at as a result of instruction and practice.

Question 70

What are motor abilities?

Answer 70

Are physical traits or capacities that you possess. They cannot be acquired.

• The characteristics that define motor abilities are as follows:
o They are inherited, enduring, stable traits that underlie and support motor skill performance
o They are genetically determined and unaffected by practice and experience
o They constitute the foundational components of motor skill performance

Question 71

Examples of motor abilities?

Answer 71

Multilimb coordination-Throwing, swimming, cross-country skiing

Finger dexterity- Playing the violin

Spatial orientation-Acrobat, ski jumper

Arm-hand steadiness- Waiter, archer, marksman, skeet shooting

Visual acuity- Baseball (hitting), football (receiver)

Reaction time- Goalie (soccer, hockey)

Movement speed- Karate, baseball pitcher

Manual dexterity- Juggling, race car driver

Proprioceptive/Kinesthetic sensitivity- Swimmer (feel for the water), gymnast (balance beam)

Question 72

Why is it important to distinguish Ability vs. Skill?

Answer 72

It is important to be able to distinguish between what is a motor skill and what is a motor ability, and not to use the terms interchangeably. The list below shows the different characteristics associated with motor skills and motor abilities.

Question 73

Differences in Ability vs. Skill?

Answer 73

• A skill is an individual’s task proficiency
• Abilities are inherited, and cannot be acquired
• Abilities can’t be modified through practice
• Skills are larger in number
• Skills are dependent on abilities
• Skills are developed/modified by practice, abilities are not

Question 74

What is General Motor Ability Hypothesis?

Answer 74

Older and less popular among researchers. Is that a single, general motor ability exists that underlies the performance of all motor skills.

o Motor abilities within individuals are general or global

o A single, general motor ability affects performance on any motor skill; for e.g., being good at one motor skill gives you the potential to be good at all motor skills (the all-round athlete concept)

o This theory is not supported by current research evidence

Question 75

What is Specificity Hypothesis?

Answer 75

That individuals possess, to varying degrees, different specific motor abilities rather than a single, general motor ability. (The 30-50).

o Advocates that the individuals possess many different, independent, motor abilities at different levels (low, medium and high)

o The potential to be good at one skill does not necessarily imply the potential to be good at all skills, particularly different skills that depend on different motor abilities

o For example, just because you are a good violinist, does not mean you would be a good cyclist or swimmer).

Question 76

Successful sport performance depends on many different factors, including?

Answer 76

• The level of parental support. Different levels of support for sports and physical activity will result in different levels of experience for children the same age
• Growth and development. Morphological factors (genetics) have a considerable influence on sport performance, in that larger, stronger, earlier maturing children will have a considerable advantage in many different sports
• General personality traits (e.g., confidence and competitiveness) will affect performance and motor development, so that different individuals will achieve different levels of success

Question 77

What is Fleishman’s Taxonomy of Motor Abilities?

Answer 77

It groups motor abilities into two distinct categories, according to whether the ability involves perceptual-motor processing or physical proficiency.

• Some of the important characteristics of Fleishman’s Taxonomy are:
o That all individuals possess the abilities in this classification system to varying degrees
o That the taxonomy identifies the smallest (most inclusive) number of categories
o That not all motor abilities are included – e.g., other classification systems recognize abilities such as static and dynamic balance, visual tracking and visual acuity
o That motor abilities set the upper limits for motor skill performance; i.e. you must have the motor abilities required for optimal performance of a particular skill (for e.g., you must have a high degree of visual acuity and manual dexterity to excel at throwing darts).

Question 78

The two categories in Fleishman’s Taxonomy are?

Answer 78

1. Perceptual-motor abilities (11)
   • Examples include muiti-limb coordination, reaction time, manual dexterity and aiming.
2. Physical proficiency abilities (9)
   • Examples include strength (four different kinds; e.g., endurance strength), flexibility (two kinds) and body equilibrium.

Question 79

Motor Abilities: Practical Applications?

Answer 79

Instructors
•	
o	Instructors (coaches and teachers) should be aware that teaching a student with an ability for one activity doesn’t guarantee success in other activities. In the same way, teaching a student who does not appear to have the necessary abilities for one skill doesn't mean they won't be successful at other skills (that require different abilities).

Students
•
o Students should not be grouped for instruction based on general motor ability tests. It is very unlikely that a single general motor ability exists; therefore, tests based on this idea are a poor basis for classification.
o Students should be grouped for instruction in a given activity on the basis of their skill proficiency and experience.

Parents
•
o Parents and teachers should attempt to provide broad sport/movement opportunities for children to develop motor skills and discover inherent motor abilities, before letting them specialize in a single skill or sport.