Chapters 14-16 Flashcards
If at some point, you find yourself in a position to teach a motor skill, one of the most important questions you should ask is?
How should this skill be taught?
Answering this question is definitely not easy, and the answer will depend on many different factors including the type of skill, the age and the learning stage of the students
One thing that is easy to answer about how one should teach a motor skill, is to say that all motor skills should be taught using a combination of two different methods which are?
1) Demonstrations
2) Verbal instructions
What are demonstrations?
The process of teaching using demonstrations is also known as modelling or observational learning.
What is observational learning?
is instructive because it emphasizes the process of observation, which is important because this is what learners do, and this is one of the key ways in which demonstrations are effective.
Demonstrations are more effective for learning new skills, because?
Beginners usually have limited attention spans and/or the attentional demands are high in the early stages of learning (e.g., the cognitive stage).
Beginners are able to take in a lot of critical information in a short period of time.
Skilled vs. unskilled demonstrations?
Research shows that “skilled” demonstrations result in better learning.
When using “unskilled” demonstrations, learners get to observe feedback and the error correction process.
Beginners then try to model or replicate the demonstrated action.
Ex. Salmon Ski Simulator
In the context of visual perception, some several important points about what the brain “sees” when it watches someone perform a motor skill?
Through visual processing and perception, the CNS is capable of visually detecting invariant movement pattern information.
Research suggests that the brain is able to visually perceive relative limb segment motions (e.g., the motion of the arm relative to the forearm).
Research also shows (using what is known as the “point-light technique”) that the visual system can recognize coordination patterns without seeing the entire limb or body.
Research suggests that observers perceive and compare the invariant relative-time relationships of the movements they see. In any skill there will be an invariant relative-time relationship between the motion of one limb segment and another. For example, in throwing there is an invariant relationship (i.e., a relationship that does not change) between the motion of the arm, the forearm and the wrist. The timing of how one segment moves in relation to the others is a relative-timing relationship which we can “see” as a coordination pattern. It is this critical information that learners perceive through watching a demonstration.
What is Point-light technique?
is a research procedure used to determine the information individuals use to perceive and identify coordinated human actions. This research technique makes use of motion capture technology (in which reflective markers are placed on the body) to assess the type of information perceived by an observer.
In this technique, observers watch a video of reflective joint markers and then identify what the points in space represent. Some people can even identify their friends simply by the manner in which the reflective markers move
What are mirror neurons?
certain neurons in the brain are activated by our own movements as well as by watching others move. (more active when a person watches someone perform a skill that they themselves know how to perform (i.e., a movement they can identify with).
When providing information verbally, coaches/instructors should consider?
consider attentional limits – especially for beginners. This is one of the pitfalls of using this method. Many coaches are eager to pass on everything they know to their learners.
Unfortunately, giving too much verbal information at once can actually hinder learning rather than help it.
Verbal instructions can be used as a way to influence?
a learner’s direction of attention (e.g, the instructor can direct the learner’s attention to appropriate visual cues and critical skill components).
What are verbal cues?
a form of verbal instruction in which short, meaningful phrases are used to direct a performer’s attention.
Verbal cues should direct attention to critical skill components or situations; e.g., kids playing soccer should be told to keep their eyes on the ball instead of looking at their parents or friends.
Research shows that the use of verbal cues to direct attention at critical times is more important (effective) for who?
beginners than for skilled performers. This is because beginners frequently don’t know where to direct their attention.
Verbal cues should prompt action of key skill components; e.g., “remember to follow through; rotate your hips; keep your head down”, etc.
Verbal cues are also effective when used by? & during the?
Verbal cues are also effective when used by the performer during the performance of a skill (e.g., to re-focus your attention after receiving a penalty).
Verbal cues are frequently used as? (Sport Psych.)
Verbal cues are frequently used as part of an athlete’s mental preparation routine (Sport Psych.).
Verbal cues are effective for minimizing what is known as the Serial Position Effect (SPE), facts about it?
The SPE applies to serial skills (which are discrete skills that have specific movement sequences; i.e., routines - see Ch. 1) and refers to the fact that skill components at the beginning and end of a routine tend to be recalled the best.
Therefore, skill components in the middle of a routine tend to be recalled the worst.
Using verbal cues to focus on the middle part of a routine will help with the retention of these components.
Sources of feedback may be either intrinsic or extrinsic, what are the equations?
Task intrinsic (TI) = sensory feedback
Extrinsic = augmented feedback (AF)
What is Knowledge of results (KR)?
AF that involves providing information related to the outcome of the performance.
For example, split times, completion stats (e.g., number of completed passes), scores (gymnastics, diving, etc.).
2 sub groups of augmented feedback?
What is Knowledge of results (KR)
What is Knowledge of performance (KP)
What is What is Knowledge of performance (KP)?
AF that provides information related to skill performance (i.e., skill related technical aspects).
For example, stride rate/length, angle-angle diagrams, joint ROM, angular velocity, trunk rotation, follow through, etc. (i.e., various biomechanical aspects of skill performance).
Note about AF?
Note that AF can be either verbal or non-verbal (non-verbal KR or KP is typically associated with a quantitative measurement; for example, a lap time or a bat speed). KR is more likely to be non-verbal, whereas KP is more likely to be verbal.
Types of KP?
Given that KR involves feedback about performance outcome, which usually relies on some kind of measurement or quantitative assessment, coaches and instructors will find that the majority of the AF they provide to learners will be verbal KP.
1) Verbal KP
2) Video
3) Kinematic Displays
4) Biofeedback
What is verbal KP?
KP is generally more effective than KR.
Most of the AF that coaches and instructors provide to learners will be verbal KP.
One of the advantages is that verbal KP can be very focused on the specifics of skill acquisition.
For verbal KP to be effective, an accurate and comprehensive skill analysis is essential. You or someone else (i.e., an experienced expert or biomechanist) should do the analysis to identify the main skill components and appropriate teaching/learning progressions).
e.g., “Turn your head less, and your body more when taking a breath”. To turn your body more, make sure you rotate your hips”.
What is video?
Video is frequently under utilized. It is literally visual knowledge of performance. Video represents an excellent learning tool because it allows the performer to “see” themselves performing the skill, and to see what the coach sees.
Video is more effective when presented with verbal KP. When presented together, the learner is able to see the performance and have the coach point out critical areas for improvement at the same time. This is invaluable for learning and for making associations between “seeing” and “feeling” at the associative stage.
What is kinematic display?
This includes presenting performance data to the learner (e.g., kinematic displays, stick figure animations, graphs, angle-angle diagrams, etc.).
Feedback should be given immediately after the performance to be most effective (although this can be difficult at times).
This kind of feedback can be used to enhance aspects of movement that are difficult to see; e.g, watching the club head trajectory as you swing a golf club (this can provide invaluable information about your swing that is difficult to see otherwise).
What is biofeedback?
refers to a type of AF that provides information about physiological processes through the use of instrumentation; e.g., HR monitors, EMG, etc.
Biofeedback provides information to?
This technique provides information to the learner that the learner normally wouldn’t have; for example, if you find you get extremely nervous before competing in a particular event, you could wear a HR monitor before the event to alert when your HR starts to increase. By working on relaxation techniques, you may be able to head off a “performance anxiety” attack before it has a chance to even get started.
In general terms, there are typically two reasons to provide AF in a motor skill learning context which are?
1) to improve the skill performance (is to achieve the desired outcome in the shortest period of time possible (i.e., to learn the skill faster)
2) to positively affect the motivation of the learner (i.e., to provide encouragement). (is to encourage continued participation with a view towards achieving long-term goals (e.g., to become an expert at the skill in question).
The importance and effectiveness of AF for motor skill learning depends to a very large extent on?
the level of task-intrinsic (TI) feedback received by the learner.
In terms of task-intrinsic feedback, there are four categories of motor learning situations that may be experienced by the learner, they are?
1) No or poor TI
2) Sufficient TI
3) Supplementary AF
4) Concurrent AF
