charity final exam review

Question 1

what is the nominal level of measurement

Answer 1

exclusive categories - no order
eg: eye colour

Question 2

what is the ordinal level of measurement?

Answer 2

ranked categories - in a specific order
eg: schooling

Question 3

what is the interval level of measurement?

Answer 3

measure variables - in order
equal intervals between values but NO ZERO VALUE!!!!!
eg: temperature - the temp of 0 does not mean there is no temperature

Question 4

what is the ratio level of measurements?

Answer 4

all other characteristics - categories, ranked, equal intervals but ALLOWS FOR COMPARISION = ratios, percents and averages
-there is a zero
eg: height and weight
eg: his weight is 2x hers

Question 5

what is probability sampling and the two primary criteria for this type of sampling

Answer 5

def: sampling method that involves randomly selecting a sample

1. random selection
2. individuals must have a non-zero chance of being selected (This means that every member of the population has some possibility, albeit small, of being chosen to be part of the sample. if they had zero chance then they would be excluded from the study)

Question 6

what are examples of probabilistic sampling?

Answer 6

• simple random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified random sampling
• cluster sampling

Question 7

what are the strengths and limitations of probability sampling?

Answer 7

strengths: generalizable, avoids selection bias
limitations: more complex, costly and time-consuming

Question 8

what is the difference between stratified and cluster sampling?

Answer 8

stratified = divide (strata) the population into groups that are DIFFERENT from each other
- randomly select participants from every group
Random selection of individuals from each group

Cluster = divided the population into similar COMPARABLE groups
- then randomly select some of the groups
Random selection of whole groups to participate

Question 9

What is non-probabilistic sampling?

Answer 9

individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, not everyone has a chance of being included

Question 10

what are examples of non-probabilistic sampling

Answer 10

• convenience sampling
• voluntary response sampling
• purposive sampling
• snowball sampling
• quota sampling

Question 11

what is the difference between reliability and validity?

Answer 11

reliability = when the results are consistent and repeatable
validity = when results satisfy objectives - properly done, no bias ( In other words, the findings of the study accurately reflect what the researcher set out to investigate or accomplish.)

Question 12

what is a cross-sectional study?

Answer 12

• population is sampled (snapshot) and exposure and outcome are measured at the same time

Question 13

what is a cohort study

Answer 13

• people without the disease of interest are sampled and then divided into exposed or non-exposed groups
• measures incidence rates and incidence rates are compared between exposed and unexposed
• retrospective or prospective

Question 14

what is a case-control study?

Answer 14

cases and controls are sampled
- retrospectively compare the two groups and their exposures
- the cases and controls should be from the same population

Question 15

what are age-standardized mortality rates?

Answer 15

can be used to compare rates of countries without being impacted by differences in age distributions

Question 16

what is the difference between mortality rate and case fatality rate?

Answer 16

mortality = how many people die from any cause or specific cause divided by people at RISK
case fatality rate = how many people die from a disease/people with that disease

Question 17

what is an odds ratio? and what studies do we calculate them in

Answer 17

• case-control studies (because incidence is not known) or cohort studies
  OR>1 = increased odds
  OR<1 means decreased odds aka protective exposure
  OR = 1 there is no difference between the groups
  how the word is important, it’s not - smokers are 1.62 times more likely to get CHD it should be worded like this: Smokers have 1.62 times the odds

Question 18

what is the relative risk?

Answer 18

Calculated in cohort studies NOT CASE CONTROL
RR= 1 means no association between exposure and outcome
RR>1 means the outcomes probability is greater in the exposed group than unexposed making it an exposure risk factor
RR<1 means the probability of the outcome is lower in exposed making it a protective factor

Question 19

what is censoring?

Answer 19

• individuals who do not reach the endpoint while under follow up and it cannot be observed whether they developed the outcome
• loss to follow up, death etc

Question 20

what is left censoring?

Answer 20

the event of interest has already occurred before the enrollment of the study

Question 21

what is an ethnography?

Answer 21

• studies patterns and behaviours, language and actions in natural settings over a long time

observe life as it happens

Question 22

what is narrative inquiry?

Answer 22

• combines the views from participants’ life

the stories themselves become the raw data

Question 23

what is phenomenology?

Answer 23

• describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon

define an observable factor event to be studied, then research how it was experienced and how it has impacted people

Question 24

what is grounded THEORY

Answer 24

• grounded theory sets out to discover or construct a theory from data, the data is systematically obtained and analyzed using comparative analysis

it would be best if you considered using grounded theory when there is no existing theory that offers an explanation for a phenomenon that you are studying - making your theory to address gaps

HOWEVER, it can be used if there is an existing theory but the theory is incomplete

Question 25

what is a case study

Answer 25

an in-depth analysis of a "case" (a program, event, individual, group)

Question 26

list the 5 types of qualitative study designs

Answer 26

1. ethnography 2. narrative inquiry 3. grounded theory 4. case study 5. phenomenology

Question 27

is validity important in qualitative research

Answer 27

not as much, instead they focus on the TRUSTWORTHINESS of research

Question 28

what are the 4 aspects of trustworthiness of qualitative research?

Answer 28

1. credibility - is the researcher giving a true picture of the reality of the experiences 2. transferability - can research be transferred to other settings 3. dependability: how consistent are the data and findings and would it be similar if repeated 4. confirmability: has the researcher attempted to limit bias in their study?