Chem-Phys1

Question 1

Scientific Notation

Answer 1

method of writing numbers that takes advantage of powers of 10: significand and exponent

Question 2

Significand

Answer 2

absolute value in the rang 1-10, cant be 0

Question 3

Converting #s to Scientific Notation

Answer 3

move the decimal point until the signficand is bigger than or equal to 1 and less than 10

Question 4

What is 34,600, 0.0003201, 1.10 and 525,600 in scientific notation?

Answer 4

34,600, 3201, 1.10, 525,6

Question 5

When rounding two numbers containing decimals, in which direction should each number for multiplication go?

Answer 5

adjust the two decimal points in opposite directions: as one moves up, move the other down

Question 6

When rounding two numbers containing decimals, in which direction should each number for division go?

Answer 6

adjust the two decimal points in the same direction

Question 7

Scientific Notation Tips

Answer 7

• Count all numbers between the first nonzero digit on the left and the last nonzero digit on the right
• any 0s to the left of the first nonzero is consider NS
• 3,490 has 3 sig, 3,490.4 has 4- watch for decimal places

Question 8

Rounding of Sig Figs

Answer 8

round to the number of sig figs that is the same as the least number of sig digits in any of the factors given

Question 9

X^0 =

Answer 9

1

Question 10

X^A x X ^B =

Answer 10

X^(A +B)

Question 11

X^A/ X^B =

Answer 11

X^(A-B)

Question 12

(X^A)^B =

Answer 12

X^ (A x B)

Question 13

(X/Y)^A =

Answer 13

X^A/ Y^A

Question 14

X^-A

Answer 14

1/X^A

Question 15

X^(A/B)

Answer 15

square root with B on the outside of X^A

Question 16

Perfect Squares Example: square root of 180 =

Answer 16

square root of 4 x square root of 9 x square root of 5 = 2 x 3 x square root of 5 = 6 square root 5

Question 17

square root of 2

Answer 17

1.414

Question 18

square root of 3

Answer 18

1.732

Question 19

LogA 1=

Answer 19

0

Question 20

LogA A=

Answer 20

1

Question 21

Log A x B =

Answer 21

Log A + Log B

Question 22

Log A ^ B

Answer 22

BLogA

Question 23

Log (A/B)

Answer 23

Log A - Log B

Question 24

Log (1/A)

Answer 24

-log A

Question 25

Henderon-Hasselbalch equation

Answer 25

pH= pKa + Log [A-/HA]

Question 26

(a + b) ^2

Answer 26

a^2 + 2ab + b

Question 27

Log (n x 10^m) = log (n) + log(10^m)

Answer 27

= m + log (n)

Question 28

values of sin, cos and tan range

Answer 28

sin and cos range from -1 to 1, tan ranges from - infinity to positive infinity

Question 29

inverse of sin, cos and tan used to find

Answer 29

angle of interest

Question 30

0 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 30

sin = 0, cos = 1, tan = 0

Question 31

30 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 31

1/2, root 3 over 2, root 3 over 3

Question 32

45 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 32

root 2 over 2, root 2 over 2, `

Question 33

60 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 33

root 3 over 2, 1/2, root 3

Question 34

90 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 34

1, 0, undefined

Question 35

180 degrees sin, cos and tan values

Answer 35

0, -1, 0

Question 36

Fahrenheit equation from C

Answer 36

F= 9/5C +32

Question 37

Kelvin equation with C

Answer 37

K= C +273

Question 38

Conversion between metric prexies is accomplished by what?

Answer 38

by muiltpication or divine by appropriate power of 10. For example, millimeters (10^-3) to kilometers (10^3), multiply by 10^-6

Question 39

scientific method

Answer 39

set of steps that defines the appropriate order of event to structure and carry out an experiment

Question 40

scientific method steps

Answer 40

generate testable question, gather data, hypothesis (if-then and testable), collect new data (experimentation or observation), analyze data, interpret data, publish, verify results

Question 41

FINER method

Answer 41

method to determine whether the answer to ones question will dd to the body of science knowledge in practical way and within reasonable period

Question 42

FINER method 5 questions

Answer 42

1. is research study going to be feasible? - obtain necessary supplies, financial or time restraints, gather enough subjects 2. Do other scientists find this question interesting? 3. Is this question novel?-- gain any new knowledge? 4. Would the study obey ethical principles? 5. Is the question relevant outside scientific community?-more important if impact more people

Question 43

errors or biasing during publication are most likely to affect which stages of scientific method?

Answer 43

affect the quality of future experimentation since their is a flawed research base and therefore subsequent hypothesis will be flawed

Question 44

basic science research

Answer 44

experimenter has so much control because done in lab not on people

Question 45

controls

Answer 45

acts as a method of verifying results

Question 46

postitive controls

Answer 46

ensure a change in the DV when it is expected | administer HIV test to HIV positive people

Question 47

negative control

Answer 47

ensure no change in the DV when no change is expected -- placebo effect (observed change when people given a sugar pill) administer HIV test to HIV negative people

Question 48

positive and negative controls create ___

Answer 48

the upper and lower bounds

Question 49

IV

Answer 49

manipulate

Question 50

DV

Answer 50

measure or observe

Question 51

causal relaionships

Answer 51

if the change in the IV always precedes the change in DV< and the change in the DV does not occur in absence of intervention, then causal

Question 52

basic science researcher errors

Answer 52

experimental bias is minimal, except if have faulty hypothesis, failing to publish results that may contradict hypothesis

Question 53

instrument error

Answer 53

may affect accuracy, precision or both

Question 54

accuracy

Answer 54

also called validity- ability of an instrument to measure a true value

Question 55

precision

Answer 55

or reliability - ability of an instrument to read consistently or within a narrow range

Question 56

accurate but not precise

Answer 56

persons weight between 150-190 pounds

Question 57

inaccurate but precise

Answer 57

129 and 131 pounds, but rlly 140 pounds

Question 58

inaccurate tools (but precise) produce

Answer 58

systematic error/bias

Question 59

controls purpose

Answer 59

controls experimental help establish casualty by demonstrating that the outcome does not occur in absence of the intervention. controls are suet keep the manipulation of diff systems as similar as possible, or as known standard against which to judge an experimental manipulation

Question 60

human subjects research

Answer 60

experimental control is low (because of ethics) and relationships are weaker experimental and observational studies

Question 61

randomization

Answer 61

control for differences between subject groups in biomedical research placement of each subject into a control group or treatment group coin toss random

Question 62

blinding

Answer 62

researchers have no information about which group the subject is in

Question 63

single blinded experiments

Answer 63

only the patient or assessor (person who makes measurement on patient) is blinded

Question 64

double blinded experimetns

Answer 64

both investigator, assessor and patient do not know subjects group

Question 65

confounding variables

Answer 65

internal validity decreases, alternative explanations for the data gender, age, lifestyle things, etc

Question 66

types of questions: binary

Answer 66

yes or no, better or worst

Question 67

continuous variables

Answer 67

on a range- percent improvement, weight loss

Question 68

categorical variables

Answer 68

SES, where do you live

Question 69

observational approach

Answer 69

cohort, cross sectional or case -control studies no experiment/manipulation no causality

Question 70

cohort studies

Answer 70

subjects sorted into groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures) and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subject sin each group had a certain outcome count how many people get lung cancer with 20 people who smoke and 20 people who dont smoke over 40 years

Question 71

cross sectional studies

Answer 71

attempt to categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time prevalence of lung cancer in smokers or nonsmokers at a given point in time

Question 72

case control studies

Answer 72

look at how many subjects have a particular outcome to not, and then look backwards to see how many subjects in each group had exposure to a certain risk factor. 100 patients with lung cancer and 100 people without lung cancer are assessed for smoking hisotry

Question 73

Hill's criteria

Answer 73

observed relationships components that increase the likelihood of causality in the relationship described as correlation for any observational study

Question 74

dose response relationship

Answer 74

as IV increases, increase in response

Question 75

consistency

Answer 75

relationship found in many settings

Question 76

plausiblity

Answer 76

reasonable mechanism for the IV to impact the DV with support by literature

Question 77

specificty

Answer 77

change in DV is only produced by associated change in IV

Question 78

coherence

Answer 78

new data and hypotheses are consistent with the current state of scientific knowledge

Question 79

systematic error bias

Answer 79

does not impact precision, but skews data in one direction or another

Question 80

bias

Answer 80

``` a result of flaws in the data collection systematic error (unidirectional) that occurs when selected subjects or collecting data ```

Question 81

confounding

Answer 81

error during analysis

Question 82

selection bias

Answer 82

subjects used for study are not representative of target population people who volunteer vs. people who dont volunteer gender in study, age

Question 83

detection bias

Answer 83

educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way. because prior studies indicate there is a correlation, researchers will expect to find one

Question 84

Hawthorne effect

Answer 84

or observation bias, behavior of the study participants us altered because they recognize they are being studied want to look good- exercise more than normal

Question 85

confounding

Answer 85

data analysis error incorrect relationship is characterized third party variables alt explanations

Question 86

causality 3 things

Answer 86

temporal precedence, correlation (associated) and internal vliaidty (no 3rd v)

Question 87

observational relationships

Answer 87

no manipulation of the subjects environment. less conclusive and more subjective than experimental research

Question 88

ethics

Answer 88

beneficence, nonmalefience, autonomy, justice

Question 89

beneficence

Answer 89

obligation to act in the pt best interest

Question 90

nonmalefience

Answer 90

obligation to avoid treatnetrs or intverntions in which harm would outweigh benefits

Question 91

autonomy

Answer 91

responbsity to respect patients decisions and choices about own healthcare

Question 92

justice

Answer 92

responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and distribute healthcare fairly

Question 93

Belmont report

Answer 93

respect for persons, justice and benfieince

Question 94

respect for persons

Answer 94

honesty between subjects and researcher informed consent - know al the Risks, benefits, goals to make a knowledgeable decision if want to participant no coercive influence can withdraw consent at any time

Question 95

IRB

Answer 95

protection against unethical studies

Question 96

vulnerable people

Answer 96

prisoners, women and children have special protection with research

Question 97

justice

Answer 97

morally relevant differences - diff between individuals that are ok to treat them differently (age) NOT ok: race, ethnicity, sexual oretination- treat the same important in selection subjects and executing research no harm to any group

Question 98

beneficence

Answer 98

intent to cause a net positive change for both the study population and general population, minimizing potential harms - least invasive, painful or traumatic way catheter or finger poke - equipoise- finger poke Is superior

Question 99

compensatory influence

Answer 99

no impact the decision to participant, coercive influence is which subject loses autonomy to make the decision

Question 100

population

Answer 100

complete group of every individual that satisfies that attributes of interest humans- 7 billion people American F between 18-20 YO

Question 101

parameter

Answer 101

information that is calculated using every person in a population

Question 102

sample

Answer 102

making generalizations about populations based on sample data any group taken from a population that does not include ALL the people random samples!! to ensure represenatative

Question 103

low generalizabilty

Answer 103

narrow conditions for sample selection that do not reflect target population

Question 104

statistically significant

Answer 104

not as a result of random chance

Question 105

internal validity

Answer 105

tendency for same experiment to produce the same results when repeated and provides support for causality

Question 106

external validity

Answer 106

ability to take the info generated and apply it to larger group. also called generalizabilty

Question 107

small sample isses

Answer 107

subject to more random variation than larger samples. if only 1 person is selected, may be an outlier. If larger sample, an outlier has less of an effect on results

Question 108

clinical significance

Answer 108

impact patients - notable change in health status as a result of research intervention

Question 109

protons

Answer 109

found in the nucleus +1 charge atomic number of an element= number of protons (Z) all oxygens have the same amount of protons (8)

Question 110

neutrons

Answer 110

``` neutral, no charge. mass number (A)- sum of the protons and neutrons mass (which makes up most of the atoms mass) a given element can have a variety of neutrons, so have different mass number (same atomic number tho) ```

Question 111

isotopes

Answer 111

atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers | determined by neutrons

Question 112

A/Z X

Answer 112

mass number/atomic number Element

Question 113

electrons

Answer 113

-1 charge. very small mass. move around nucleus at varying distances, corresponding to varying levels of electrical potential energy.

Question 114

electrons closer to nucleus have

Answer 114

lower energy levels

Question 115

electrons farther from nucleus (higher electron shells) have

Answer 115

higher energy! strongest interactions with the surrounding environment and weakest interactions with the nucleus. Called valence electrons- more likely to bond with other atoms since dont feel nucleus electrostatic pull. determine reactivity of the atom donating or sharing increases stability in reaching highest energy level

Question 116

positively charged atom

Answer 116

cation

Question 117

negatively charged atom

Answer 117

anion

Question 118

charge is determined by

Answer 118

electrons

Question 119

atomic number is determined by

Answer 119

protons

Question 120

heaviness of an element

Answer 120

atomic weight is constant for a given element, atomic mass or mass number vary from 1 isotope to another (because neutrons)

Question 121

atomic mass

Answer 121

mass of 1 proton= 1 amu= mass of 1 neutron

Question 122

atomic mass of an atom is nearly equal to

Answer 122

its mass number in amu, in sums of protons and neutrons

Question 123

atomic weight

Answer 123

the weighted average of these different isotopes of an element represents both the mass of the average atom of that element in amu and the mass of 1 mole of the element in grams

Question 124

half life corresponds with

Answer 124

stability and proportions of these isotopes

Question 125

a mole is

Answer 125

a number of "things" (atoms, ions, molecules) that equal to Avogadros number (6.02 x 1023)

Question 126

example of atomic weight

Answer 126

atomic weight of C is 12.0 amu, which means that the average carbon atom has a mass of 1 amu and 6/02 x 10^23 C atoms have a combined mass of 12 g.

Question 127

Planck relation

Answer 127

the energy of a quantum E= hf h= Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10^-34 J x s f= frequency of the radiation

Question 128

angular momentum

Answer 128

L=mvr

Question 129

kinetic energy

Answer 129

1/2 m v ^2

Question 130

Bohr Model

Answer 130

angular momentum

Question 131

angular momentum

Answer 131

L = nh/2 pi n= quantum number (+ integer) h=plancks constant (6.626 x 10^-34) angular momentum changes with regards to quantum number

Question 132

energy of the electron equation

Answer 132

E = -(R sub H)/n^2) R sub H = Rydberg unit of energy= 2.18 x 10^-18 J/electron energy of electrons changes with regards to quantum number the energy of the electron increases- becomes less negative- the farther out from the nucleus it is located (increasing n)

Question 133

electrons jump when

Answer 133

the amount of energy exactly is equal to the difference between 1 orbit and another like a staircase, not a ramp

Question 134

the orbit with the smallest, lowest energy radius

Answer 134

ground state (n=1)

Question 135

excited state

Answer 135

when an electron moves to a sub shell of higher than normal energy - an orbit with a larger radii

Question 136

Bohr model importance

Answer 136

explain atomic emission and absorption spear of atoms

Question 137

electrons can be excited with the addition of

Answer 137

heat or energy forms, bu brief and electrons will return to ground state, leading to emission of energy in the form of photons. these energy transition do not form a continuum, but rather are quantized to

Question 138

electromagnetic energy of photons equation

Answer 138

``` E= hc/lambda h= planks constant (6.626 x 10^-34) c= speed of light in a vaccum (3.00 x 10^8 m/s) lambda= wavelength of the radiation ```

Question 139

line spectrum

Answer 139

each line on the emission spectrum (frequency of light) corresponds to a specific electron transition. Because each element can have its electrons excited to a diff set of distinct energy levels, each possess a unique atomic emission spectrum (fingerprint for element)

Question 140

Lyman series

Answer 140

hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n > 2 to n= 1

Question 141

Balmer series

Answer 141

hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n >3 to n=2 4 wavelengths in visible region

Question 142

Paschen series

Answer 142

Hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n >4 to n=3

Question 143

the energy associated with a change in the principal quantum number from a higher initial value ni to lower final value nf is equal to

Answer 143

the emerge of the photon predicted by plancks quantum theory.

Question 144

Combining Bohr and PLancks calucations

Answer 144

E= hc/lambda= R sub H [1/ni^2 - 1/nf^2 the energy of the emitted photon corresponds to the difference in energy between higher energy initial state and the lower energy final state

Question 145

absorption spectrum

Answer 145

when an electron is excited to a higher energy level, it must absorb exactly the right amount of energy to make that transition. energy absorption at a specific wavelength to exciterse electrons of a particular element.

Question 146

each element has a unique

Answer 146

emission spectrum and absorption spectrum (correspond together because the difference in energy between levels remains unchanged ) absorb energy in forms of light and emit in forms of light

Question 147

Bohr's model failed to

Answer 147

explain the structure and behavior of atoms containing more than 1 electron (only did Hydrogen) did not take into account repulsion between many electrons surrounding the nucleus.

Question 148

difference between Bohr's model and modern quantum mechanical model

Answer 148

Bohr thought that electrons followed a clear defined circular pathway or orbit a fixed distance from the nucleus , whereas modern quantum mechanics showed that electrons move more rapidly and are localized within regions of space around the nucleus (orbitals). Impossible to determine where an electron is exactly at any point in time.

Question 149

Heisenberg Uncertanity principle

Answer 149

it is impossible to simulateouly determine, with perfect accuracy, the momentum, and the position of the electon

Question 150

Pauli exclusion principle

Answer 150

no two electrons In a given atom can possess the same set of 4 quantum numbers (n/l/ml and ms)

Question 151

energy state

Answer 151

the position and energy of an electron described by its quantum number. the value of n limits l which limits ml

Question 152

quantum number give info about

Answer 152

size, shape and orientation of the orbitals.

Question 153

quantum number n

Answer 153

principal quantum number. used in Bohr's model and can take on any + integer number. the larger + number, the higher the energy eve and radius of the electron shell.

Question 154

maximum number of electrons within a shell

Answer 154

2n^2 | n- principle quantum number

Question 155

the difference in energy between two shells decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases due to

Answer 155

the energy difference is a function of [1/n^2 - 1/nf^2] ex. difference between n=3 and n=4 shells are 1/9 - 1/16 is less than the difference between n=1 and n=2 shells (1/1- 1/4).

Question 156

azimuthal (angular momentum) quantum number- l

Answer 156

refers to the shape and number of sub shells within a given energy level (shell). important implications with chemical bonding and bond angles.

Question 157

the value of n limits l

Answer 157

for any given value of n, the range of possible values for l is 0 to (n-1). ex. n==2 sub shells l can be 0 or 1.

Question 158

spectroscopic notation

Answer 158

``` principal and azimuthal quantum numbers principal quantum number is a number (1, 2) and l turns into letters l=0: s l= 1: p l=2: d 1=3: f example. n=4 and l=2 =4d ```

Question 159

the energies in the sub shells increase

Answer 159

with increasing l values

Question 160

magnetic quantum number

Answer 160

ml. specifies the particular orbital within a sub shell where an electron is most likely to be found at a given moment in time. each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. integers between 1 and -1,including 0. s sub shells, with l=0, limits ml to 0 because there is a single value o fm1 and only 1 orbital in s shells. the p sub shell, l=1, ml can be -1, 0 or 1, because there are 3 values for m1 and three values in the p sub shell. d sub shell has 5 orbitals (-2 to +2) and f has seven orbitals (-3 to 3)

Question 161

the shape of the orbital, like the number of orbitals is dependent on

Answer 161

the sub shell in which they are found in: s shells are spheres, p shells are dumbbells

Question 162

as atomic number increases, so does number of electrons

Answer 162

2p contains 3 orbitals. If each orbital contain 2 electrons than 6 electrons can be added during the course of filling 2p orbitals.

Question 163

spin quantum number

Answer 163

ms. spins in +1/2 or -1/2. whenever two electrons are in the same orbital, they have opposite spins- refereed to as paired. electrons in diff orbitals with the same ms values are parallel spins.

Question 164

electron configurations

Answer 164

the pattern by which subshells are filled, number of electrons within each energy level and sub shell is designated by this. use spectroscopic notation, first number denotes energy leveladn the letter is sub shell and subscript is number of electrons in subshell. 2p^4- 4 e- in the second p sub shell of the second energy level (1s and 2s are indicated to be full)

Question 165

Aufbau principle

Answer 165

electrons fill from lower to higher energy sub shells and each sub shell is completed before electrons begin to enter the next one.

Question 166

n+ 1 rule

Answer 166

rank sub shells by increasing energy. the lower the sum of the values of the first and second quantum number, n+ 1, the lower the energy of the sub shells. lower n value, fill with electrons first.

Question 167

Hunds rule

Answer 167

in sub shells that contain more than 1 orbital, such as the 2- sub shell with 3 orbitals. This rule states that within a given sub shell, orbital are filled such that there are a max number of half filled orbitals with parallel spins. Would prefer own orbital before forced to double up with another. due to repulsions. half filled and fully filled orbitals have lower energies and higher stability than other states

Question 168

chromium electron configuraton

Answer 168

Ar 4s^23d^4 but moving 1 e- from 4s to 3d all's 3d to be half filled and be Ar4s^1 3d^5

Question 169

how many electrons each orbital can hold

Answer 169

s- 2 p- 3 d- 10 f-14

Question 170

copper electron configuraton

Answer 170

Ar 4s^13d^10 rather than Ar4s^23d^9 as full d sub shell outweighs the cost of moving an electron out of th 4s sub shell. never observed In p shells- not worth loss of stability.

Question 171

paramagnetic

Answer 171

unpaired electrons in atoms will oreint their spins in a ligament with a magnetic field and the material is weakly attracted to it.

Question 172

diamagnetic

Answer 172

toms that have only paired electrons will be slightly replied by magnetic field

Question 173

valence electrons

Answer 173

outermost energy shells electrons- easily removed and available for bonding

Question 174

IUPAC step 1

Answer 174

identify the longest carbon chain containing the highest-order functional groups, also called the parent chain, If there are two or more chains of equal length, then then the more substituted chain gets priority as the parent chain.

Question 175

IUPAC step 2

Answer 175

number the chain. Number 1 is closest to the highest priority functions group. If all the same priority, numbering the chains should make the numbers of the substituted carbons as low as possible

Question 176

oxidation state

Answer 176

the more oxidized the carbon is, the higher priority it has in the molecule. oxidation state increases with more bonds to the herteroatoms (any atom but H and C) and decreases with more bonds to H.

Question 177

rings- double and triple bonds

Answer 177

everything is the same- numbering from greatest sub. if there is a tie between assigning priority in a molecule with a double and triple bond, double bond takes precendence (not normal)

Question 178

IUPAC step 3

Answer 178

name the subsitutuents. Substituents are functional groups not apart of the parent chain. Name will be placed at the start of the cmpd name as a prefix, followed by name of the longest chain. only the highest priority functional groups will determine the suffix for the cmpd and must be apart of the parent chain.

Question 179

CH3, CH3Ch2, CH3CH2CH2

Answer 179

methyl, ethyl, n-propyl

Question 180

if there are multiple subsitutents of the same type, use these prefixes:

Answer 180

di-,tri-, tetra0, etc.

Question 181

IUPAC step 4

Answer 181

give C number designation and use prefixes | 2,3-dimethyl

Question 182

IUPAC step 5

Answer 182

complete the name. alphabetical order sub!!! prefixes like di-, tri- are ignored when alphabetizing. numbers are separated by commons, and form words with hyphens. example- 4-ethyl-5-isopropyl-3,3-dimethyloctane

Question 183

hydrocarbons

Answer 183

only C's and H's

Question 184

alcohols

Answer 184

C's, H's and OH!

Question 185

alkane

Answer 185

simply hydrocarbons with the formula CnH2n+2. methane- 1C ethane-2C propane-3C butane-4C meth isn't ethical or propiate BUT pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec, undec, dodec

Question 186

halogens

Answer 186

common sub on alkanes. alkyl halides are indicated by prefix: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo

Question 187

-ene, -yne

Answer 187

double and triple bonds. usually is named like a sub and numbered by lowest C. example: 2-butene, or but-2-ene 1,3-butadiene

Question 188

alcohols

Answer 188

named by replacing -e at the end of the name with -ol. -OH gets the lowest possible number, even when there is a multiple bond present due to its higher oxidation state. If alcohol is not highest sub group, then it is called hydroxy-. ex. ethanol 5-methyl-2-heptanol hept-6-en-1-ol

Question 189

alcohols with 2 hydroxyl gross are called diols or glycols

Answer 189

and are indicated with the suffix -diol. ex. ethane-1,2-diol has hydroxy group on each C. diol is added at end.

Question 190

diols with hydroxyl groups on the same carbon

Answer 190

geminal diols

Question 191

diols with hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons

Answer 191

vicinal diols

Question 192

2-propanol

Answer 192

isopropyl alchol

Question 193

ethanol

Answer 193

ethyl alcohol

Question 194

aldehydes and ketones both contain a

Answer 194

carbonyl group, C=O. with no leaving groups connected to the carbonyl carbon- only connected to the carbon chain or aldehydes with a H. if there is a higher priority group, name ketone and aldehydes with prefix oxo- or keto- for ketones only

Question 195

aldehydes

Answer 195

chain terminating- end of parent chain. generally attached to carbon 1 bc takes priority. Replace -e with -al. ex. butanal

Question 196

ketones

Answer 196

found in the middle of carbon chains. replace -e with -one. give lowest possible number ex. 2-penanone

Question 197

methanal, ethanal, propanal

Answer 197

formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde.

Question 198

propanone

Answer 198

always ketone on C2. | acetone

Question 199

carbon adjacent to the carbonyl carbon

Answer 199

alpha. successive C's are beta, gamma, and delta. on ketone, both C's are considered alphas in the carbonyl carbon

Question 200

ketones and aldehydes both take precedence over:

Answer 200

alcohols and hydrocarbon chains, and the functional group that is the highest priority determines the suffix. aldehydes usually do suffix because they are terminating

Question 201

carboxylic acids

Answer 201

both a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) on a terminal carbon. terminal functional groups like aldehydes. Oxidized carbon!!! (3bonds to it)so HIGHEST PRIORITY GROUP EVER! replace -e with -oic acid.

Question 202

formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid

Answer 202

methanoic acid, ethahnoic acid, propanoic acid

Question 203

esters

Answer 203

common carboxylic acid dervitaitves. hydroxyl group (-oh) is replaced with an alkoxy group (-OR, where R is a hydrocarbon chain). based on carboxyl naming. first term is how many C are in the hydrocarbon chain ethyl, methyl, propyl, etc. second term is the parent acid, with -oate replacing -oic acid. methyl butanoate

Question 204

amides

Answer 204

carboxylic acid derivative. the hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino group (n containing group). N can be bonded to 0, 1 or 2 alkyl groups (C, H). Suffix is amide. Sub are started with capitol N in front to indicate they are bonded to N- not numbered and prefixed. N-ethyl-N-methylbutanmide

Question 205

anhydrides

Answer 205

carboxylic acid derivative (from 2 actually and water is removed. Cyclic molecules. replace acid with anhydride in the name of the corresponding carb acid if the anhydride is formed from only one type of carb acid. if the anhydride is not symmetrical, both carb acids are named without suffix acid and before anhydride is added. ex. ethnoic propanoic anhydride ethnoic anhydride

Question 206

functional group proriorty list

Answer 206

carb acid (oic acid), anhydride (anhydride), ester (oate), amide (amide), aldehyde (al), ketone (one), alcohol (ol), alkene (ene), alkyne (yne), alkane (ane) suffix ^^^^

Question 207

mendelevs table was arranged by atomic weight, but modern periodic table is arranged by

Answer 207

atomic number (number of protons in an element)

Question 208

A elements

Answer 208

representative elements- groups 1A-VIIIA- valance elcectrons in the orbitals of either s or p sub shells.

Question 209

B elemtns

Answer 209

nonrepresenative elements (transition elements - valence electrons in the s and d subsehlls) and the lanthanide and actinide series (s and f sub shells)

Question 210

metals are

Answer 210

lustrous (shiny), high MP and densities, malleability (can be deformed without breaking), ductility (pulled into wires),low EN, large atomic radius, small ionic radius, low ionization e, low electron affinity, good conductors - two or more osdiations states - loosely held to atoms

Question 211

nonmetals are

Answer 211

upper right side of table. no metallic luster, high ionization energy, electron affinity, EN and small atomic radii and large ionic radii. poor conductors cuz cant give up e-.

Question 212

metalloids

Answer 212

both metals and nonmetals.brittleness but good conductivity.

Question 213

effective nuclear charge

Answer 213

a measure of the net positive charge experienced b the outermost electrons. pull toward the center. increases from L to R of the periodic table . Zeff. constant in given group.

Question 214

principal quantum number

Answer 214

down the elements of a given group, increases. valence electrons are separated from the nucleus.

Question 215

octet rue

Answer 215

tend to be most stable with 8 electrons in valence she

Question 216

atomic radii

Answer 216

equal to 1/2 the distance between centers of 2 atoms in contact with one another. decreases from L to R across a period. atomic radius increases down a group

Question 217

ionic radii

Answer 217

metals lose e- and become +, nonmetals gain e- and become -. metalloids go based on side they fall on. nonmetals close to metalloid line possess a larger ionic radius than counterparts. metals close to metalloid line have more ee- to lose, and experience a less drastic reduction in radius during ionization.

Question 218

ionization energy

Answer 218

energy required to remove an electron from gas/- input of heat- endothermic. high Zeff, more close to nucleus, harder to remove. increases from L to R and bottom to top.

Question 219

electron affinity

Answer 219

energy dissipated by gas species when it gains an electron . opposite of ionization E. exothermic process. the stronger the electrostatic pull (higher Zeff) between the nucleus and valence e-, greater the E release will be when the atom gains an e-. increases across period from L to R, decreases from top to bottom.

Question 220

Electronegativity

Answer 220

measure of thr attractive force that an atom will exert on an electron in chemical bond. greater EN, more it attracts e- within that bond. lower ionization E, lower EN. first 3 nobel gases are exceptions.

Question 221

high reactivity to water

Answer 221

groups 1 and 2

Question 222

six valence electrons

Answer 222

6 and 16 groups

Question 223

contain at least 1 metl

Answer 223

groups 1-15

Question 224

multiple oxidation states

Answer 224

all groups. notably 3-12 (transition metals)

Question 225

- oxidation states

Answer 225

all groups, notably 14-17 (nonmetals)

Question 226

possess a full octet in neutral state

Answer 226

group 18

Question 227

group 1

Answer 227

alkali metals. Zeff low. low densities. low ionization E, low electron affinity, low EN

Question 228

alkaline earth metals

Answer 228

group 2. slightly higher effective muscular charge and slightly smaller atomic radii.

Question 229

active metals

Answer 229

group 1 and 2- so reactive

Question 230

chalcogens

Answer 230

group 16/ eclectic group of nonmetals and metalloids. reactive. 6 e- in valence shell and small atomic radii and large ionic radii. Ozugem

Question 231

halogens

Answer 231

group 17 are highly reactive with 7 e- valence. want to complete octet. gas to solids and liquids. high EN and electron affinity

Question 232

noble gases

Answer 232

group 18. inert gases. limited reactive because 8 valence e-. low BP

Question 233

transition elements

Answer 233

groups 3-12. metals with low electron affinity, low ionization E, low EN, high MP and BP . malleable and good conductors. 'different oxidation states because capable of losing diff #s of electrons from the s and d orbitals.

Question 234

if a newton is the product of a kilogram and m/s, units for pounds are

Answer 234

Force will obey the sam relationship with mass and ace elation, so always m/s. one pound = slightly x ft/secons square

Question 235

smallest to largest

Answer 235

angstrom, cm, inch, foot, mile

Question 236

scalars

Answer 236

numbers that have magnitude only, on direction- distance, speed, energy, pressure and mass

Question 237

A + B and B + A

Answer 237

vectors look the same - no difference in R

Question 238

A- B and B-A

Answer 238

have the same R but in opposite directions

Question 239

scalar is calculated by 2 vectors by using the dot product

Answer 239

A x B = ABcos theta

Question 240

vector is calculated by 2 vectors by using the cross product

Answer 240

A x B = ABsintheta

Question 241

displacement

Answer 241

has magnitude and direction- net change from initial to final direction

Question 242

velocity

Answer 242

rate of change of displacement over time. speed is rate of distance.

Question 243

insanteous speed of an object will always be equal to the magnet of the objects

Answer 243

instaneous velocity, which measures the average velocity as the change in time approached 0

Question 244

average velocity

Answer 244

displacement vector over time- vector

Question 245

average speed

Answer 245

scalar. the rate of total distance traveled over a change time

Question 246

v= d/t

Answer 246

equation

Question 247

total distance traveled can Never be less than the total displacement

Answer 247

because displacement is the most direct route.

Question 248

displacement

Answer 248

velocity over time

Question 249

Equation - gravtional force

Answer 249

``` Fg= Gm1m2/r^2 G= 6.67 x 10^-11 ```

Question 250

friction equation

Answer 250

Friction = muFn

Question 251

Weight equation

Answer 251

Fg= mg

Question 252

acceleration equation

Answer 252

a= v/t

Question 253

direction of the friction force always opposes

Answer 253

movement.

Question 254

if there is no net force acting on an object,

Answer 254

then the objects not expericnign an acceleration and has a constant velocity

Question 255

Force on you by earth and force of you on earth is

Answer 255

equal! forces are reipiorcal in magnitude.

Question 256

Newtons first law

Answer 256

F= ma= 0. A body either at rest or in motion with constant velocity will remain that way unless a net force acts on it

Question 257

Newtons second law

Answer 257

F= ma. An object of mass m will accelerate when the vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero resultant force vector. Accleraiton results from sum of force vectors

Question 258

Newtons third law

Answer 258

Fab= -Fba to every action there is an equal opposite reaction. For every force exerted by A on B, there is an equal but opposite force on B on A

Question 259

equations

Answer 259

``` V= Vo + at x= Vot + at^2/2 V^2= V^2o + 2ax x=vt Fc= mv^2/r ```

Question 260

the only force in free fall and projectile motion

Answer 260

gravity

Question 261

free fall

Answer 261

object falls with constant acceleration, without air resistance. not reach terminal velocity. 9.8

Question 262

projectile motion

Answer 262

2 dimensions, x and y. . objects in motion on earth experience force and accleriton due to gravity only in y axis, Vx remain constant.

Question 263

greattes horizational displacement at angle

Answer 263

sin and cos are at 45

Question 264

greatest vertical displacemnet at angle

Answer 264

launched vertically?

Question 265

translational equilibrium

Answer 265

forces cause objects to move without any rotational. vector sm of all the forces acting on a object is 0, constant speed and direction

Question 266

rotational equlibirium

Answer 266

occurs when forces are applied against an object to cause an object to rotate around a fixed point- torque T= F x r- Frsintheta sum of all torques is 0

Question 267

equation

Answer 267

v= frequency x wavelength

Question 268

period

Answer 268

number of seconds per cycle- T= 1/freq

Question 269

angular frequency

Answer 269

measures in radians per second | = 2 pi frequency or 2pi/T

Question 270

wave speed

Answer 270

is the rate at which a wave transmit the E or matter it is carrying. parodic of frequency and wavlength

Question 271

frequnecy

Answer 271

measure of how often a waveform passes a given point in space. Hz.

Question 272

angular frequency

Answer 272

same as frequency but in radians per second

Question 273

equilibrium position

Answer 273

point with 0 displacement in an oscillating system,

Question 274

amplitude

Answer 274

max displacement of a wave from equilibrium position

Question 275

traveling waves

Answer 275

have nodes and antinodes that move with wave propganda

Question 276

standing waves

Answer 276

defined nodes and antinodes that do not move with wave propgandtion

Question 277

sound waves

Answer 277

longutidal waves

Question 278

principle of supoerposition

Answer 278

when waves interact, the displacemnt of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the displacement of the two waves interacting together

Question 279

sound is produced by

Answer 279

mechanical vibrations generated by solid objects or fluids. sound is longutidal waves

Question 280

ampltiud oof sound wave is related to its sound level

Answer 280

or volume. frequency of wave is related to its pitch

Question 281

open both sides

Answer 281

wavelength = 2L/n

Question 282

closed on side

Answer 282

wavelength = 4L/n

Question 283

string

Answer 283

wavelength= 2L/n

Question 284

isomers

Answer 284

same moclulear formula, different structures

Question 285

structural isomers

Answer 285

share their molecular formula, meaningg that their molecular weights must be the same different physical and chemical properties different ways to draw C6H14 conformational isomers

Question 286

physical properties

Answer 286

dont change the composition of matter- MP, BP, solubilit, door, color and density

Question 287

chemical properties

Answer 287

reactivity of the molecule with other mc and result in a change in composition

Question 288

stereoisomers

Answer 288

same chemical formula AND same atomic connectivity- same structural backbone. Differ in how these atoms are arranged in space

Question 289

conformational isomers

Answer 289

differentiations in rotation around a single sigma bond. When double bonds hold mc in specific positions, single bonds are free to rotate. Varying degrees of rotation can create different levels of strain

Question 290

conjugational isomers

Answer 290

can be interconverted only by breaking bonds

Question 291

staggered/anti conformation

Answer 291

when 2 big molcules are 180 degrees away from each other and there's no overlap so steric are decreased

Question 292

gauche conformation

Answer 292

from anti to gauche, pass through eclipsed conformation where 2 big groups are 120 degrees apart. when two groups directly overlap with each other (same plane, same side- totally eclipsed)

Question 293

two forms of confirational iosmers

Answer 293

enatioomers and diastereomers

Question 294

chiral

Answer 294

mirror image cannot be superimposed on the OG image-lacks symmetry. looks at hands. chiral center- C- lack a plane of symmetry

Question 295

enatiomers

Answer 295

two molecules that are non superimposale mirror images of one another. same connectivity but opposite configurations at every chiral center in the molecule. have identical physical and chemical properties except topical activity and reactions in chiral environments RS, SR

Question 296

diastereomers

Answer 296

chiral and share the same connectivity, but not mirror images because differ at some chiral centers. occur when a molecule has two or more stereogenic centers and differ at some , but not all of these centers. RR, RS SR, SS SS, RS

Question 297

C atom with 3 different subsitutrants

Answer 297

plane of symmetry and is achiral

Question 298

optical activity

Answer 298

rotation of the plane polarized light by a chiral molecule.

Question 299

racemic mixture

Answer 299

when both positive and negative enantiomers are present in equal concentrations, cancel each other out and no optic activity occurs.

Question 300

cis trans isomera

Answer 300

specific type of diasteromers in which subtituents differ in their position around an immovable bond, like a double bond. Cis if same said, opposite side is trans

Question 301

meso compounds

Answer 301

a molecule with a chiral center that has a plane of symmetry- not optically active

Question 302

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Priority rules

Answer 302

priority is assigned based not eh atom bonded to the double bonds carbons- higher the atomic number, higher the priority. Used for EZ nomenclature, with double bounds

Question 303

Z

Answer 303

two highest priority sub on each C are not eh same side of the double bond

Question 304

E

Answer 304

opposute sides of the double bond

Question 305

RS

Answer 305

used for chiral (streogenic) centers in mc

Question 306

nomenclature of Chiral

Answer 306

assign priority- right down numbers arrange in space- lowest priority (H) back of mc invert stereochem- any time two groups are switched on a chiral C, the stereochemistry is inverted draw a circle- S= counterclockwise R (to the right)- clockwise

Question 307

fisher projections

Answer 307

horizontal lines indicate bonds that project out front eh plane (wedges) and vertical lines indicate bonds going into the plane (dashes) same steps as above, but after make 1 switch. swap the lowest priority group with one of the groups on the vertical axis. Then turn it 180.

Question 308

ionic bonding

Answer 308

electrons are transferred from 1 atom to another and the resulting ions are held together by electrostatic interactions

Question 309

coavlent bond

Answer 309

electrons are shared between atoms

Question 310

bonding occurs in the

Answer 310

outmost shell of electrons

Question 311

the quantum numbers describe

Answer 311

the shape, size number and origination of atomic orbitals an element posses n--- energy level of a given electron- size. smaller #= closer e is to nucleus and lower its E. L- ranges from 0 to n-1. 0=s 1=p 2=d 3=f ml- orbitals - from -L to +L shape each orbital can hold 2 electrons, which are described by ms: 1/2 and -1/2

Question 312

bonding orbital

Answer 312

if the signs of the wave functions are the same

Question 313

antibonding orbital

Answer 313

If the signs are different a high E (less stable) bond is produced

Question 314

when a molecular orbital formed by head to head or tail to tail overlap

Answer 314

sigma bond! All sigma bonds are single bonds

Question 315

when two p orbitals line up parallel , their electrons clouds overlap

Answer 315

create a pi bond. cannot exist without a sigma bond

Question 316

pi bond to sigma bond

Answer 316

double bond

Question 317

sigma bond and 2 pi bonds

Answer 317

triple bond- hinder rotation

Question 318

the more bonds that are formed between atoms

Answer 318

the shorter the overall bond length is. double bond is shorter than a single bond. Hold atoms more closely together and stronger- require more E to break. although pi bonds individually are weaker to break than sigma bonds- breaking a sigma bond may require more E so double may break to a single. triple bond>double>sims>pi

Question 319

bonding orbitals are more stable than antibonding

Answer 319

so anti has higher E than bonding

Question 320

hybrid orbitals

Answer 320

fome day mixing different types of orbtals

Question 321

how much "s" chatacter

Answer 321

ex. sp^3 | 3 p's and 1 s so 25% s.

Question 322

Carbon is most often bonded with

Answer 322

sp3 hydribitazation

Question 323

sp2

Answer 323

alkenes! 3rd p orbital is left unhydrbizaed and participates in pi bonding. three sp2 orbitals are located 120 degrees apart, separate. two will participate in C-H bonds and the other will do C=C with a sigma bond (with the pi bond above)

Question 324

sp

Answer 324

to form a triple bond, two p orbitals to form pi bonds and third p orbital will combine with s to form two sp orbitals. 180 degrees Can form triple bond or two double bonds in a row like CO2

Question 325

resonace

Answer 325

electrons in molecules that have conjugated bonds- alternating single and multiple bonds- aligns with unhybridized p orbitals down backbone. pi orbitals can delocalize through this p orbital system adding stability to the mc.

Question 326

octet rule

Answer 326

states that an atom tends to bond with other atoms so that it has 8 electrons in its outermost shell

Question 327

incomplete octet

Answer 327

these elements are stable with fewer than 8 electrons in their valence shell and include H (stable with 2), helium (2) , lithium (2) , beryllium (4) and boron (6)

Question 328

expanded octet

Answer 328

any element in period 3 and greater can hold more than 8 electrons, like phosphorous (10), Sulfur (12) chlorine (14)

Question 329

odd numbers of electrons

Answer 329

any molecule with an odd number of valence electrons cannot distribute those e to give 8 to each atom, like NO (11)

Question 330

always do octet rule

Answer 330

O, N, C, F, Na, Mg

Question 331

ionic bonding

Answer 331

one or more electrongs from an atom with low ionization energy, like. a metal, are transferred to an atom with high electron affinity, a nonmetal NaCl electrostatic charges hold groups together crystal lattice structure

Question 332

covalent bonding

Answer 332

electron pair is shared between 2 atoms, nonmetals with similar EN. The degree to which their pair of electrons is shared equally or unequally determines the degree of polarity (dipole) if shared equally- non polar if not- polar

Question 333

cation

Answer 333

atom that loses electrons

Question 334

anion

Answer 334

gains electrons

Question 335

ionic bond

Answer 335

cation and anions, attraction | formed with nonmetal and metal

Question 336

ionic properties

Answer 336

high MP and BP, dissolve in water and polar substances, conductors of Electricity, crysatizze dilative to bring together opposite charge and all away repulsive forces

Question 337

coavlent

Answer 337

when 2 atoms of similar tendery to attract electrons form a compound, energetically favorable then completing a full transfer weak interactions so lower MP and Bp, poor conductors of electricity

Question 338

formation of 1 covalent bond may not be sufficient to fit the valence shell so

Answer 338

atoms form bonds with more than 1 atom single double triple cov bond

Question 339

bond order

Answer 339

number of shared electrons (single =1 , double =2)

Question 340

bond length

Answer 340

average distance between two nuclei of atoms in a bond | as number of shared electrons pair increases, the two atoms are pulled together, decrease in bond

Question 341

bond energy

Answer 341

energu required to break a bond by spectating its component into their isolated gas atomic state- more e- share, more E to break the bond- triple bonds have the greatest energy= stronger bond

Question 342

polarity

Answer 342

differences in EN | dipole

Question 343

non polar covalent bond

Answer 343

no seperation of change across the bond equal or near equation F2, N2

Question 344

polar covalent bonds

Answer 344

uneven sharing

Question 345

non polar cov bonds will form with

Answer 345

En= 0 - 0.5

Question 346

polar cov bonds will form with

Answer 346

En- .5-1.7

Question 347

ionic bonds with form

Answer 347

En- 1.7 or higher

Question 348

strongets to weakest intermolecular forces

Answer 348

H bond> dipole> LDF

Question 349

H bond

Answer 349

H with EN

Question 350

molecule

Answer 350

two or more atoms held together by a covalent bond Co2 - diff elements N2- same element

Question 351

molecular weight

Answer 351

sum of atomic weights for al the atoms in a molecule - amu per molecule

Question 352

formula weight

Answer 352

adding up all the atomic weights of a ion according to empirical formula

Question 353

mol weight of SOcl2

Answer 353

S: 1 x 32.1 amu= 32.1 O: 1 x 16 Cl: 2 x 35.5 = 71 total = 119.1 amu where do u find atomic weights?

Question 354

mole

Answer 354

any substance equal to the number of particiles found in 12 g of c

Question 355

avogadros number (Na)

Answer 355

6.022 x 1023

Question 356

molar mass

Answer 356

mass of one mole of a camped is molar mass : g/mol

Question 357

equvilants

Answer 357

how many moles of the things we are interested in looking at will 1 mole of a given cmpd produce? = mass of cmpd/ gram eqvulant weight gram equiv weight = molar mass/ n

Question 358

law of constant composiiton

Answer 358

any pre sample of a given compound will contain eh same elements in an identical mass ratio water- for every 1 g of H there will be 8 g of O because there is 2 H and 1 O

Question 359

empirical formula

Answer 359

only the ratio and may not give actual number of atoms

Question 360

molecular formula

Answer 360

gives the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound

Question 361

percent composition

Answer 361

mass of elect in form/molar mss x 100

Question 362

combination rxn

Answer 362

two or more rectants form 1 product

Question 363

decomposition Rxn

Answer 363

a singel reactant breaks down into 2 or more products

Question 364

combustion reaction

Answer 364

requires fuel- hydrocarbon and oxygen (oxidant)- produce CO2 and water

Question 365

single displacement rxn

Answer 365

when an atom of ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element Cu + AgNO3 --> Ag + CuNO3x

Question 366

double displacement

Answer 366

elements from 2 differ compounds swap places with each other to form 2 new comounds CaCl2 + AgNo3 --> CaNo3 + AgCl

Question 367

neutralization reactions

Answer 367

acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water | a type of double displacemnet reactions

Question 368

limiting reagent

Answer 368

limits amount of product that can be formed int eh reaction

Question 369

percent yield

Answer 369

actual/theoreetical x 100

Question 370

electrolytes

Answer 370

solid ions are poor comducots because the charged particles are rigidly set in place needs to be aqueous solution with ions floating around HCL in water- highly dissociate = high conductors weak electrolyte- ionizes incompletely and only some solute is dissolved- acetic aid, Hg2I2, weak acids, ammonia, weak bases, bipolar gases, glucose, Co2, O2

Question 371

Energy

Answer 371

a systems ability to do work

Question 372

Kinetic energy

Answer 372

energy of motion | k= 1/2 mv^2

Question 373

energy is in

Answer 373

Joules (kg/m^2/s^2)

Question 374

if the speed doubles the kinetic energy will

Answer 374

quadruple

Question 375

potentential energy

Answer 375

given objects position in space

Question 376

gravitational potential energy

Answer 376

PEg= mgh

Question 377

elastic potentil energu

Answer 377

PEel= 1/2 kx^2 k- spring constant - stiffness x- displacement

Question 378

sm of objects potential and kinetic energy= total mechanical energy

Answer 378

E= U + K

Question 379

conservative forces

Answer 379

path independent and that do not dissipate energy- gradational and electrostatic constant mechanical energy remains constant back to initial position - from a to b to a full circle

Question 380

nonconservative forces

Answer 380

decrease mechanical E of system- E is dissipated more E is dissipated with longer path friction, air resistant,

Question 381

work is not a form of eneregyc, but a process by which E is transferred from 1 system to another

Answer 381

other way to transfer is by heat w= F x D work is in J

Question 382

work equations

Answer 382

``` W= Fdcostheta W= P delta V -- isobaric process- pressure is constant W= delta K ```

Question 383

volume stays constant and pressure changes

Answer 383

isochoiric process

Question 384

power

Answer 384

rate at which E is transferred from 1 system t another P= W/t = delta E/t measured in Watt

Question 385

work energy thereoym

Answer 385

Kf- Ki = delt K= W net

Question 386

as the length of the inclined plane increases, the amount of force necessary to perform the same aount o work

Answer 386

decreases (movign the same object the same displacement)

Question 387

the six simple machines are inclined plane

Answer 387

wedge,e wheel and ankle, level , pulley and

Question 388

no heat flows between 2 objects in thermal equilibrium

Answer 388

thermal contact and same temp

Question 389

chemical kinetics

Answer 389

the study of reaction rates the effects of reaction conditions on these rates, mechanisms applied

Question 390

Gibbs free energy

Answer 390

spontaneous and nonspotaneous reactions | whether a reaction will occur by itself or will it need outside assistance

Question 391

rate deterring step

Answer 391

slowest step in any proposed mechanism- acts as a kinetic bottleneck - preventing the overall reaction from proceeding any faster than the slowest step.

Question 392

activation energy

Answer 392

the minimum energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur.

Question 393

collision theory

Answer 393

the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second between the reacting molecules. but not all collisions create a reaction- need to collide with correct origination adn energy to brea old bonds and form new ones. Activation energy barrier needed to be overcome. rate= Z x F z=total number of collisons F- fraction of collisions that are effective

Question 394

arrehenius equation for rate

Answer 394

k= Ae ^(-Ea/RT) ``` k= rate constant A-= frequency T= temp -E= activation energy A= frequency factor ```

Question 395

when molecules collide with energy equal to or greater than teh activation energy they form a

Answer 395

transition state in which old bonds are weakened and the new bonds begin got form. transition state dissociates into products , fully forming the new bonds.

Question 396

delt G reaction

Answer 396

the difference between teh free energy of the produces and the free E of the reactants

Question 397

-delta G

Answer 397

exergonic - energy is given off

Question 398

positive delta G (free energy)

Answer 398

endergonic- energy is absorbed

Question 399

factor affecting reaction rates

Answer 399

greater concentration of reactants- greater number of effective collisions per unit time- increase of frequency factor as temp increases so does reaction rate depends on medium (aqueous , solvents (ethanol) catalysts - increase reaction rate without being consumed- can increase frequency of collisions with reactions, change origination, etc.

Question 400

rate law

Answer 400

rate =k [A]^x [B]^y

Question 401

zero order reaction

Answer 401

rate of formaion of product C is independent of changes in concentration of any of the reactants, A and B constant action rate = to the rate constant k rate = k [A]^0 [B]^0 when temp lowered- rate decreased concentrations doubled- unaffected rate catalyst added- rate increases

Question 402

first order reaction

Answer 402

a rate that is directly proportional to only one reactant , such that doubling the concentration of that reactant results in doubling of the rate of formation of the product. rate - k [A]^1 or rate - k [B]^1 when temp lowered- rate decreased concentrations doubled- rate doubled catalyst added- rate increases

Question 403

second order reactions

Answer 403

rate that is proportional to either the concentration of 2 reacts or to the square of the concentration of a single reactant rate = k [A]^1 [B]^1 rate - k [A]^2 rate - k [B]^2 when temp lowered- rate decreased concentrations doubled- rate multiplied by 4 catalyst added- rate increases

Question 404

carbonyl

Answer 404

in aldehydes and ketones, s well as esters, carboxylic acids, amides, anhydrides double bondbetween a carbon and an oxygen nucleophile or electrophile

Question 405

ketone

Answer 405

2 alkyl groups bonded to the carbonyl | never a terminal group

Question 406

ALDEhyde

Answer 406

1 alkyl group and one hdyrogen bonded to carbonyl terminal group replace the -e at the end of the alkane with the suffix -al. methanols, ethanol, propanal, butanal, pentanal

Question 407

methanol

Answer 407

formadelhyde (1C)

Question 408

ethanol

Answer 408

acetaldehyde (2C)

Question 409

aldehydes as functional groups have prefix

Answer 409

oxo-

Question 410

ketones are named by replacing the

Answer 410

-e with -one two alkyl groups named alphbetcually and then followed yb ketone as subsistuntes, use prefix oxo- or keto- 2-propanone (dimethyl ketone, acetone) 2-butanone (ethylmethylketone)

Question 411

physical properties of aldehydes and ketones

Answer 411

governed by the carbonyl group. dipole is stronger wut carbonyl because double bonded oxygen is more electron withdrawing. increased intermolecular attractions with an elevation in BP (less than alc tho because no H bonding) electrophile- due to electron withdrawing of carbonyl O, partial positive on C. aldehydes more reactive to nucleophiles because have less steric hinderance

Question 412

order of names

Answer 412

meth eth prop but

Question 413

forming an aldelhyde

Answer 413

oxidation of primary alc but can only be produced using weaker oxidizing agents like PCC

Question 414

ketones formed

Answer 414

by the oxidiadation of secondary alcohol

Question 415

nucleophile attack on carbonyl C

Answer 415

nucleophile attacks and forms a covalent bond with the C, breaking pi bond in carbonyl. elections from pi bond are pushed Onto oxygen which accepts extra e- due to electron. Breaking the pi bond forms a tetrahedral intermediate. Need a good leaving group to reform (with aldehydes and ketones- dont reform). Can pick up H from solution and make alc. Good leaving groups are present with carboxylic acid and double bond can reform pushing off the leaving group.

Question 416

geminal diols

Answer 416

in the presence of water . The nuceoleophilic oxygen in water attacks the electrophilic carbonyl Carbonyl C, pushing electrons up from the double bond and attaching water on. Water loses its one H to the top O and so now 2 alcohol

Question 417

aldehydes and ketones treated with alchols

Answer 417

hemiacetal or hemiketal. retention of the hydroxyl group. Attacks (ROH) and oxygen loses double bond. Grabs alcohol H and so there's 1 Alc and 1 OR group. 2 equivalents- proceed to competition with 2 OR groups instead of just 1 (get rid of alc) SN1 reaction OH proontated and lost as water in acidic conditions. form acetals and ketals - protecting groups

Question 418

nitrogen and nitrogen based functional groups act as good

Answer 418

nucleophiles due to teh lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, react radoly with electrophilic Carboxyl on aldehydes and ketones.

Question 419

imine

Answer 419

ammonia adds to the C atom adn water is lost N atom double bonded to to a C atom in Carbonyl - ketones and aldehydes example of condensation reaction because small molecule is lost during formation of a bond between 2 molecules. also a nucleophilic subsection reaction

Question 420

immines and other N groups can undergo tautomeization to form

Answer 420

enamines, which contain both a double bond and a N containing group

Question 421

when HCN (triple bonds and electroneg N atom)reacts with an aldehyde or ketone

Answer 421

cyanohydrin is produced, which is a stable product (C-C bond)

Question 422

oxidation and reduction spectrum

Answer 422

aldehydes are more oxidized than alcohol, but less than carboxylic acids. Ketones are as oxidized as secondary carbons can get.

Question 423

when aldehydes are further oxidized

Answer 423

form carboyxlic acid | with KMnO4, CRO3 Ag2O, H2O2

Question 424

carboxylic acid

Answer 424

r group to a double bond oxygen adn carbonyl C to an alcohol group.

Question 425

hydride reagents

Answer 425

aldehydes and ketones undergo reduction to form alcohol. LiAlH4 and NABH4

Question 426

alpha carbon

Answer 426

adjacent to the carbonyl carbon adn the hydrogens connected to alpha C are termed alpha hydrogens. easy to deprornoate alpha carbon of an aldehyde and ketone because oxygens pulls some electron density away fro the C-H bonds making them weak

Question 427

acidity of alpha hydrogens

Answer 427

by resonance stabilization of the conjugate base and also inductive effects. The electronegative oxygen atom pulls electron density away from C-H bonds, weakening it. Once deprotonaed, resonance stabilization of the neg charge between alpha C , carbon C and electron withdrawing carbonyl oxygen increases the stability of this form

Question 428

the alpha. hydrogens of aldehydes and more acidic than those of

Answer 428

ketones. due to electron donating char of the second alkyl group in ketones. This extra alkyl group destabilizes the carbanion (intermediate with lone pairs instead of H) and disfavors loss of alpha H in ketones compared to aldehydes . Pentanal is stronger acid than pentagon and will have a lower pKA

Question 429

aldehydes are more reactive to nucleus than ketones

Answer 429

due to steric hinderance in ketones- arise from additional alkyl groups that ketones contain (in teh way more so than the aldehyde H) ketones create a higher E intermedate so less likely to proceed

Question 430

enol

Answer 430

C to C double bond and an alcohol. Due to teh acidity of the alpha H, aldehydes and ketones exist in solution as a mixture of 2 isomers- keto and enol form

Question 431

tautomers

Answer 431

the 2 isomers (keto and enology) differe in placement of proton and double bond. Far more keto than enols because thats where equilibrium lies.

Question 432

enoization/tautomerization

Answer 432

interconverting the keto to enroll tautomer.

Question 433

enoate carbanians act as

Answer 433

nucleophiles- Michael addiition | carbanan attacks an alpha beta unsaturation carboxyl compound

Question 434

kinetic enolates

Answer 434

form rapidly and can interconvert with teh thermodynamic form -- favored by fast, irreversible reactions such as with a strong statically hindered base and low temp less stable double bond to the less sub alpha C

Question 435

thermodyanmic enolate

Answer 435

favored by slower reversible reactions with weaker or small bases and higher temperatures

Question 436

enamines

Answer 436

``` tautomers of imines (C=N bond) N may be bound to another alkyl group through tautomerization (movement of a hydrogen nd a double bond) , imines can be converted into enamines ```

Question 437

aldol condensation

Answer 437

generally the same as a nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl , but an aldehyde or ketone acts both as a electrophile (in its keto form) and a nucleophile (in its enolate form) - results in C-C bond.

Question 438

retro adol reaction is the

Answer 438

reverse of an aldol reaction where instead of a bond btween alpha and beta C of a carbonyl , it is broken. This can be favored by the addition of base and heat.

Question 439

aldol condensation Is a ___ reaction

Answer 439

condensation. 2 molecules are joined to form a single moelcule with the loss of a small molecule

Question 440

dehydration rection

Answer 440

molecule of water is lost

Question 441

nucleophile-electrophile reaction

Answer 441

in which a nucleophile pushes an electron pair to form a bond with an electrophile.

Question 442

lewis acid

Answer 442

electron acceptor in the formation of a covalent bond tend to be electrophiles vacant p orbital where they can accept electron pair

Question 443

lewis bse

Answer 443

electron donor in the formaiton of a covalent bond nucleophilies have lone pairs that can be donated- negative charges

Question 444

coordinate covalent bonds

Answer 444

covalent bonds in which both electrons in the bond came from teh same starting atom (Lewis base)

Question 445

bronsted lowry acid and base

Answer 445

acid that can donate a proton | base- accept a proton

Question 446

amphoteric

Answer 446

water- act as bronsted lowry acid and base

Question 447

electrostatics

Answer 447

study of stationary charges and the forces that are created by and which act upon these charges.

Question 448

matter

Answer 448

electrically neutral

Question 449

unit of charge

Answer 449

``` coloumb e = 1.6 x 10-19 C both proton adn electron have this charge, but proton is posotive and electron is negative proton has greater mass electrons greater acceleration ```

Question 450

insulators

Answer 450

will not easily distribute a charge over its surface and will not transfer the charge to another neural object or another insulator. electrons closely linked with nuclei nonmetals glass, hair, water

Question 451

conductors

Answer 451

charges will distribute evenly upon teh surface of the conductor. Able to turner and transport charges and are often used in circuits metals blood, copper, iron

Question 452

coulombs law

Answer 452

Fe = kqq/r^2 | k=9x10^9

Question 453

every electric charge sets up a surrodnign electro field

Answer 453

electric fields exert forces on other charges hat move into the space of the field. E = kQ/r^2 = Fe/q

Question 454

electric field midway meteen 2 negative charges

Answer 454

would be 0 because they are the same charges and cancel out midpoint

Question 455

negaive electrostatic force

Answer 455

points from 1 charge to the other (attaractive)

Question 456

positive electrostatic force

Answer 456

points from 1 charge away from the other (repulsive)

Question 457

direction of the electric field given as teh

Answer 457

direction that a positive test charge would move in teh presence of a source charge. Positive- point outward and negtauve- point inward field lines- used to draw this- closer tg = stronger

Question 458

electric potentil energy

Answer 458

E = kQq/r depends on teh relative position of one charge with respect to another charge if both charges the same (+ and + or - and -) then potential energy will be positive

Question 459

negative charge and positive

Answer 459

unlike charges, more attractive, closer= more stable, negative potential energy

Question 460

2 positive charges

Answer 460

repulsive, potential energy is positive , repel adn therefore closer they are- less stable

Question 461

if both particles have teh same charge

Answer 461

electric potential E decreases as distance increases. if iopposite charges - increases PE as distance increases

Question 462

electrical potential E is Couloumbds law multiplied by

Answer 462

distance

Question 463

Volts = kQ/r

Answer 463

yes

Question 464

electropotential

Answer 464

ratio of a charge's electrical potential energy to the magnutide of the charge itself

Question 465

voltage/potential difference

Answer 465

measure in the change of electric potential between 2 points, which provides an indicator of the tendency toward movement in one direction or the other

Question 466

charg will minimize potential energy

Answer 466

yes

Question 467

equpotential line

Answer 467

potential at every point is the same . sets of points and fdifference between them is the same no voltage or acceleration potential difference

Question 468

electric dipole

Answer 468

separation of charge within a molecule such that there is a permeant or temporary region of equal adn opposite charge at a particular distance V= kd/r^2

Question 469

electric field

Answer 469

need a charge

Question 470

magnetic field

Answer 470

charge that also moves

Question 471

magnetic force

Answer 471

external electric field acting on a charge moving any direction except parallel to the external field

Question 472

condensation reaction

Answer 472

two molecules into one with teh loss of water | carboxylic acids are formed this way

Question 473

carboxylic acids

Answer 473

amides, esters and anhydrides | replace the OH on the carboxyl group with another leaving group

Question 474

amides

Answer 474

RCONR2 formula- just NH replace -oic acid with -amide substituetns on teh nitrogen atom are listed as prefixes and their location is specified with the letter N. synthesized with carboxylic acids adn ammonia/amide loss of H from the nucleophile ex. N,N-dimethylethanamide

Question 475

cyclic amides

Answer 475

lactans | beta- bond between b carbon and teh nitrogen

Question 476

ester

Answer 476

dehydration synthesis products of other carboxylic acid derivatives and alcoholics esterifying group(sub bonded to O) as a prefix -oate relates -oic acid ethyl ethanoate triglycerides - storage form of fats in the body: esters of long chain carboxylic acids

Question 477

cyclic esters

Answer 477

lactones

Question 478

sponification

Answer 478

the process by which fats are hydrolyzed under basic conditions to produce soap

Question 479

anhydrides

Answer 479

condensation of dimers of carboxylic acids RC(O)OC(O)R symmetrical anhydrides- name acid instead of anhydride at end (ortho-phthalic acid) formed y heating carboxylic acids and driven forward by increased stability of newly formed rings (5 or 6 ring) high BP alcohols can act as nuc to anhydrides to form esters and carboxylic acids anhydrides can be reverted back to caroboxylic acid by exposing them to water

Question 480

steric hinderance

Answer 480

describes when a reaction doe snot proceed due to teh size of the sub affect ability of the nuc to access the carbonyl carbon thus affects reactivity

Question 481

induction

Answer 481

distortion of charge across sigma bonds dipole electrons attracted to atoms that are more electroneg, generating a dipole carboxylic acids groups to nuceophooc attacks

Question 482

carboxylic reactive groups

Answer 482

anhydride, esters, amides anhydrides are stable with resonance and electron withdrawing O is very electrophilic amides- electrons donating amino group

Question 483

conjugation

Answer 483

presence of alternating single and multile bonds

Question 484

lactams and lactones are more reactive to hydrolysis because they

Answer 484

contain more strain | torsional strain from eclipsing interaction and angle strain from compressing sp3 angle

Question 485

in the formation of amide from ammonia and an anhydrde

Answer 485

nucleophile - ammonia electrophile- one of the carbonyl C of the anhydride alc also nuclei to anhydrides

Question 486

tranesterifcation

Answer 486

exchange of one esterfying group for another in an ester reaction requires an alchol as a nucleus ethyl group of the alc replace the isopropyl butonate

Question 487

strongly acidic conditions catalyze amide hydrolysis by

Answer 487

protonating the oxygen in teh carbonyl | increases the electrophilcity of the Carbon, making it more susceptible to nuclear attacks

Question 488

snucleophilic acyl substation attack of teh carbonyl carbon results in the

Answer 488

displacement of a LG formation of amides from nuc sub reactions between ammonia and any carboxylic acid- - also a cleavage reaction because splits anhydride

Question 489

strongly basic conditions catalyze amide hydrolysis by

Answer 489

increasing the concentration of -OH, which can act as a nuc on amide carbonyl

Question 490

amino acids

Answer 490

contain an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group attached to a single carbon atom (alpha C) other 2 sub are a H atom and a R group alpha C is chiral (stereogenic center) besides for glycine because r group is H

Question 491

amino acids are chiral so they are

Answer 491

optically active and L isomers | have S configuration except for cusstein which is R

Question 492

amino acid characteristics

Answer 492

acidic carboxyl group and basic amino group are amphoteric molecules act as both acid and bases! amino groups can take on positive charge by being protonated and carboxyl groups can take on negative charge when deprotonated.

Question 493

when an amino acid is put in positive and negative charges

Answer 493

take on both and form a zwitterion

Question 494

amono acids are grouped into 5 categoties

Answer 494

non polar aromatic, aromatic, polar, negatively charged (acidic) and positively charged (basic)

Question 495

non polar aromatic

Answer 495

side chains saturated by hydrocarbons like alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine and also glycine and proline and met

Question 496

aromatic amino acids

Answer 496

tryptophan, phenylalamine, tyrosine

Question 497

nonpolar amino acids

Answer 497

hydrophobic can be aromatic or not interior or proteins

Question 498

polar amino acid

Answer 498

terminal groups containing oxygen, N, sulfur- serine, threonine, asp , glutamic, cysteine

Question 499

negtaively charged amino acids

Answer 499

aspartic acid and glutameric acid terminal carboxylate anions in their R groups

Question 500

positively charged amino group

Answer 500

arg, lysine, his have a protonated amino group in their R groups

Question 501

polar acidic and basic amino acids are all

Answer 501

hydrophilic and tend to form H bonds with water

Question 502

amino acids undergo condensation reactions to form

Answer 502

``` peptide bonds (through polypeptides) are the base unit of proteins hydrolysis of pteptide bonds is catalyzed by a strong acid or base ```

Question 503

C-N bond of an amide is

Answer 503

planar because it has a double bond characteristic due to resonance. Double bonds exist in a planar configuration and restrict movement.

Question 504

stecker synthesis

Answer 504

one starts with an aldehde, ammonium chloride and potassium cycanide. Carbonyl oxygen is protonated, increasing electrophilicty of teh carbonyl carbon. Ammonia attack carbonyl C to form an immine which is susceptible for a nuc attack and CN- anion from KCN attacks forming Nitrile group (-C triple bond to N) final molecule is a aminonitrile- NH2 (amino group) and a nitrile group. water used to hydrolyze aminonitrile to form the amino acid a condensation reaction (formation of imine from a carbonyl containing cmpd and ammonia with loss of water) followed by nuc addition(adition of nitrile group) followed by hydrolysis

Question 505

Gabriel Synthesis

Answer 505

proceeds through 2 SN2 reactions, hydrolysis and decarboxylation begins with potassium phthalimide and diethyl bromomalonate , followed by an alkyl halide. Water is then used to hydrolyze the resulting cmpd to form teh amino acid. acid and bases as catalyst.

Question 506

phosphoric acid

Answer 506

forms the high energy bonds that carry E in ATP inrognaic phosphate or phosphate group AKA ha a very negative charge. when bonded to other phosphate groups in a nucleotide triphosphate, this creates repulsion with adjacent phosphate groups , increases E of the bond can be resonance stabeized

Question 507

organic phosophates

Answer 507

C containing molecules with phosphate groups like DNA, ATP, GTP

Question 508

the 3 H in phosphoric acid have very different pkA values - allows phosphoric acid to

Answer 508

pick up or give off protons in wide pH range/ good buffer

Question 509

extraction

Answer 509

the transfer of dissolved compound (desired product) from a starting solution into a solvent in which the product is more soluble like dissolves like- polarity step 1: 2 solvents are immiscible (2 layers that do not mix), different polarities or basic base properties so that a compound of interest ins dissolve more easily In one than the other repertory funnel - denser layers sink to the bottom (organic layer on top) and drain inorganic from the bottom. Keep adding teh solute (water), shake, settle, exact - multiple extractions is best desire product + water- rotary evaporator evaporates water

Question 510

acid and bases

Answer 510

dissovle more easily in opposite acid base char. ex. acid dissolves more easily in base as it creates a conjugate base and highly charged (soluable)

Question 511

distillation

Answer 511

takes advanatge of BP in order to seperate solutions of miscible liquids by evaporation adn condensation lower BP- vaporize first - condenses as liquid and drips down into a vessel (distillate). heating temp kept low so that the liquid with teh high BP will nt be able to make it distillate container

Question 512

filtration

Answer 512

isolates a solid from a liquid | residue (left behind-solid) adn filtrate (liquid)

Question 513

recrystallization

Answer 513

further purifying crystals in solution dissolve product in hot solvent and let it recrystaize as it cools - desired product will recrysalize at this specifi chigh temp and imurities will remain liquid

Question 514

simple distillation

Answer 514

described above. | between temp 150 C and 25 C

Question 515

vaccum distillation

Answer 515

distil a liquid with a BP over 150 C vaccumn lowers ambient pressure, decreasing the temp that the liquid must reach in order to have a good vapor pressure to boil can distill compoudsn with high BP at lower temp

Question 516

fractional distilzation 1

Answer 516

seperate 2 lipid with similar BP (less than 25 degrees apart_

Question 517

chromatogaphy

Answer 517

key: more similar a compound is to its surroudnings (polar, charge, ) more it will stick to and move slowly through its surroundings

Question 518

ion exchange chromatgraphy

Answer 518

the column is given a charge, which attarcts molecules with teh opposite charge

Question 519

size exclusionc hromatgraphy

Answer 519

small pores are used- smaller moleucles are trapped while larger molecules pass through teh column

Question 520

affinity chromatography

Answer 520

spceific receptors or antibodies can trap the target of teh column; target must then be washed out using other solutons

Question 521

gas chromatography

Answer 521

mpbiel and sationary phase with gas instead of liquid stationary - metal (where the sample is placed) ad then it is run through a stationary phase (liquid or gas) and will displace or elute teh sample adn will adhere to the stationary phase at differing strengths substances migrate at different speeds- isolate them (partionining)

Question 522

mass spec

Answer 522

molecular eight determination: ionization and fragmentation of compounds in an magnetic field and separates based on mass to charge ratio

Question 523

high performance liquid chromatography

Answer 523

HPLC.used to be with high pressure but now performed with a solvent and temp gradients, specific separation

Question 524

carboylic acids

Answer 524

nucleophiles, electrophiles, acids (give away protons) very stable and acidic hydrogen bnding - so High BP an intermolecular forces -oic acid highest priority functional group

Question 525

cyclic carboxylic acids

Answer 525

suffix carboxylic aci

Question 526

carboxylic acid properties

Answer 526

simila to aldehydes and ketones but another acidic H to participate in runs and hydrogen bond polar- contain carbonyl group hydrogen bond bc contain H bonded to electroneg hydroxyl O form dimers because of high intermolecular attraction- connected via hydrogen bond acidic so negative charge haev a stable conjugate base, easier for proton to leave, stonger acid

Question 527

electron withdrawing sub makes the anion

Answer 527

more syable and therefore increase acidity electron donating sub destabilize the anion and casue the carboxylic acid to be less acidic- closer sub us to carboxylic acid, stronger effect

Question 528

photoelectric effect

Answer 528

when light with a sufficient high frequency is incident on a metal on a vacuum, the metal atoms emit electrons, producing a net charge (current)

Question 529

light beams of greater intensity produce

Answer 529

a larger current , larger electrons liberated from the metal

Question 530

when the lights frequency is above the threshold frequency, the magnitude of the resulting current is directly proportional to

Answer 530

the intensity (amplitude) of the light beam

Question 531

threshold freqency

Answer 531

minmum frequency to cause ejection of electrons. depends on type of metal. all or none response. if less than threshold, no response

Question 532

Photons

Answer 532

light quanta

Question 533

energy of photons equation

Answer 533

E= hf E- energy of photon go light h- planks constants (6.626 x10^-34) f- frequency of light

Question 534

wavelength and frequency equation

Answer 534

c = wavelength x frequency c- speed of light - 3 x 10^ 8 waves with higher frequency have shorter wavelengths

Question 535

when electrons are ejected, excess energy is connected to kinetic energy

Answer 535

Kmax = hf-W | W- work

Question 536

work

Answer 536

minimum energy required to eject an electrtron. any excess turns into kinetic e W= hf(t f(t)- threshold freqneyc

Question 537

Bohr model of an atom | atomic absorption

Answer 537

electron energy levels are stable and discrete, corresponding to specific orbits. An electron can jump from a lower E state to a higher E state by absorbing a photon of light of right frequency to match teh difference between orbits (E= hf)

Question 538

when an electron falls from higher E state to lower E state

Answer 538

emits photon with energy equal to teh energy difference between 2 orbits atomic emission

Question 539

IV spectra

Answer 539

used to find chemical structure because different bonds will absorb different wavelengths of light

Question 540

UV vis spec

Answer 540

looks at absorption of light in teh visible and UV range.

Question 541

change in molecular structure can cause shifts in absorption patterens

Answer 541

acid state- clear basic state - bright pink- absorb all bu the longer wavelengths of visible light can be protonated or deprotonated, double bond or aromatic

Question 542

fluroence

Answer 542

excites with UV radiation, glow with visible light. Photons of UV light have high freuqnwcy (shorter waveengths). after being excited to a higher state by UV, electron in the fluorescent substance returns to its OG state and involves less energy as it goes down- photon is emitted with a lower frequencyy the UV. if within the visible range, glow

Question 543

energ ydifference between ground state e and higher level e determines

Answer 543

the frequency of light a particualr material absorobs (absorption spectra)

Question 544

mass defect

Answer 544

``` the mass of the nucleus is slighter smaller than just addign protons and neutrons. E = mc^2 E= energy m- mass c- speed of light ``` result of matter beign converted to energy (binding energy). have a strong nuclear force, attacrt neutrons and protons together evenn tho repulsive.

Question 545

fourfundamental forces of nature

Answer 545

strong and weak nuclear forces | electrostatic forces, gravitation

Question 546

mass defect adn biding e

Answer 546

transformation of nuclear mass to E with a resultant loss of matter E= mc ^2

Question 547

nuclear reactions

Answer 547

fusion, fission and radioactive decay- combing or splitting of nuclei of atoms intermediate sized atoms are most stable, when small atoms combine or large atoms split there is a lot of E released.

Question 548

isotopic notation

Answer 548

elements are preceded by tehir atomic number as a subscript and mass number as a superscript A - mass number- protons plus neutrons X Z- atomic number- number of protons

Question 549

fusion

Answer 549

small nuclei combine to form larger nucleus | (hydrogen helium) - increase in nuclear mass during rection

Question 550

fission

Answer 550

large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei. | (actinides, lanthanides)- decrease in nuclear mass during a reaction

Question 551

radioactive decay

Answer 551

spontenous decay of certain nuclei accompanioned by the emission of specific particles

Question 552

isoltop decay

Answer 552

X (parent nucleuse) goes through nuclear delay to form Y (daughter nucleus) + emitted decay particle mass numbers and Tomic numbers must be the same on both sides of the equation- balance!

Question 553

alpha decay

Answer 553

emission of alpha paticle massive cmpared to the beta particle, double the charge emission of alpha particle means that the atomic number of the daughter nuc will be 2 less than that of parent and parent number will be 4 less. -4- A X (alpha) (He) -2- Z

Question 554

beta decay

Answer 554

emission of beta particle, or an electron. when a neutron decays into a proton. rlly penetrating that alpha radiation positron- mass of e but + charge emitted: z = -1 (so add one to Z of parent) adn A=0-- may emit antineutrino opposite when protn to neuron (+1 so minus 1 to Z) may emitneutrino in beta positive

Question 555

gamma decay

Answer 555

gamma rays emitted, which are high energy / high frequency photons. carry no charge and simply lower the E of the parent nucleus without changing mass or atomic number.

Question 556

electron capture

Answer 556

capture an inner electron that combines with a proton to forma neutron. Atomic Number is -1 (Z) than the original. reverse of beta decay absorbs e-

Question 557

half life

Answer 557

time it takes for half of the sample to decay

Question 558

gamma radiation produces electromagnetic radtion

Answer 558

rather than nuclear fragments, it can be detected on an atomic absorption spectra.

Question 559

reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one chemical species to another

Answer 559

oxidation reduction (redox) reactions

Question 560

oxidation

Answer 560

loss of electrongs

Question 561

reduction

Answer 561

gain of electrons

Question 562

oxidzing agent

Answer 562

causes another atom in a redox reaction to undergo oxidation and itself its reduced

Question 563

reducing agent`

Answer 563

causes the other atom to be reduced and it self is oxidized.

Question 564

OIL RIG

Answer 564

oxidation I sloss, reduction is gain

Question 565

almost all oxiizing agents contain oxygen or another EN element

Answer 565

like a halogen O2, H2So4 KMnO4 +

Question 566

reducing agents

Answer 566

contain metal ions or hydrides (H-) CO, C, B2H6 NADH

Question 567

alcohols

Answer 567

ROH -OH funcitonal group is hydroxyl replace -e with -ol if highest priority, alcohol receive lowest possible number. If not, named as subsitutient with hydroxy- prefix

Question 568

phenols

Answer 568

``` alcohol rings hydroxyl Hydrogens are rlly acidic due to resonance within the phenol ring w groups on adjacent C- ortho seperate C- meta opposite sides of ring- para ```

Question 569

physical properties of alc

Answer 569

``` hydrogen bonding (H attached to EN molecules like O, N, F) as a reuslt of extreme polarity higher MP and BP ```

Question 570

hydroxyl H of phenols are more acidic tha those of other

Answer 570

alchols- due to teh aromatic nature of the ring and resonance stabilization of the negative charge on O

Question 571

alcohols with highest BP

Answer 571

more hydroxyl moleucles, more H bonding | long chain has increased LDF forces ad therefore lower BP

Question 572

electron withdrawin sub

Answer 572

increase acidity as electron donating groups decrease it

Question 573

oxidation of primary alc to aldehydes

Answer 573

PCC. stops here bc PCC lacks the water necessary to hydrate the otherwise easily hydrated aldehyde with other oxidizing agents, aldehydes are rapidly hydrated to form geminal diols (1,1-diols) which for carboxylic acids after oxidized again

Question 574

secondary alc can be oxidized to ketones by

Answer 574

PCC or any stonger oxidizing agent

Question 575

tertiary alc cannot be oxidized becasue they are already as oxides as they can be

Answer 575

without breaking a C-C bond

Question 576

oxidation of primary alc with chromium VI (Na2Cr2O7 and K2Cr2O7) will produce

Answer 576

carboxylic acid and secondary alcohol to ketones

Question 577

CrO3- Jones oxidation

Answer 577

oxidizing primary alc to carboxylic acids and secondary alc to ketones

Question 578

hydroxyl groups are poor LG of

Answer 578

nuc sub reactions if protonated or reacted with to form better LG mesylate is a compound containing the functional group -SO3Ch3 Teslates: -So3C6H4Ch3- forming ester also help with protecting groups

Question 579

aldehydes or ketones can be reacted with 2 equvi of alcohol or diol to form

Answer 579

acetal or ketal- less reactive than aldehydes and ketones and thus proetct the functional group from reacting

Question 580

treatment of penols with oxidizing agents

Answer 580

produce quinones resonance stabilized electrophiles sometimes aromatic

Question 581

DKA

Answer 581

diabetic ketoacidosis can arise from th result of the bodies metabolism of FA when insulin production shut down. FA are then metabolized into ketone bodies as an alt E source to glucose, some ketones producted are ketone acids and

Question 582

irreversiable

Answer 582

reaction proceeds in 1 direction | determined by the Rate limiting reagent

Question 583

reversible

Answer 583

forward or reverse do not usually proceed through completion because products can react to form Reagan's forward= reverse

Question 584

dyanmic equilibrium

Answer 584

forward and reverse reactions ae occuring

Question 585

static equilbium

Answer 585

going a the same rate reactions in forward and back so no change in the concentration of the products or reagents

Question 586

entropy

Answer 586

measure of the distribution E throughout a system or between a system and its environment

Question 587

law of mass action

Answer 587

Keq= {C^C][D^D]/[A^A][B^b} | is the system is at equilbiurm

Question 588

reaction quotient Q

Answer 588

same equation as K, but measures concentrations at any point in time QKeq froward reaction has succeeded and reagents are lower concentration

Question 589

Q and Keq

Answer 589

Q< Keq: forward reaction has not yet reached equilibrium greater concentration of reactants Q= keq: dynamic equilibrium and forward and reverse are equal Q> Keq: forward reaction exceed equilibrium and product is more

Question 590

the concentrations of pure liquids and l=solids do not appear

Answer 590

in teh equilibrium expression because based on activities of compounds not concentrations

Question 591

equilibrium constant

Answer 591

is temperture dependent

Question 592

larger Keq

Answer 592

other R the eqilibrium is

Question 593

reverse reaction of equilibrium is

Answer 593

1/keq

Question 594

Keq

Answer 594

= [products]/[reactants]

Question 595

le chatliersqif stress i

Answer 595

s applied ot the sstem, the sstem shifts to relieve that applied stressed

Question 596

at lower temp with a smaller heat transfer

Answer 596

a kinetic product forms

Question 597

at higher temp with a larger heat transfer

Answer 597

thermodynamic prodict

Question 598

density =

Answer 598

mass over volume (m/v) | kg/m^3 units

Question 599

denisty of water

Answer 599

1 g/cm^3 = 1000 kg/m^3

Question 600

Weight (Fg) =

Answer 600

density x volume x 9.8 (accelrtion due to gravity)

Question 601

specific gravity

Answer 601

SG = density/1 g/cm^3/1 000 kg/m^3

Question 602

pressure =

Answer 602

Force/Area | Pa= N/m^2

Question 603

conversions between pressures

Answer 603

1.013 x 10^ 5 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr= 1 atm

Question 604

absolute hydrostatic pressure

Answer 604

total [ressure exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid (liquids and gases) P= P0 + density(9.8)(z) z= depth P0= ambiant pressure, pressure on the surface, mopstly atm

Question 605

guage pressure

Answer 605

difference between teh absolute pressure inside somewhere and the atmospheric pressure outside the place P gauge = P-Patm

Question 606

density is directionless

Answer 606

therefore scalar

Question 607

cohesion

Answer 607

attractrive force experienced by molecules ofr a fluid of the same

Question 608

ahdesion

Answer 608

attractive forces experienced by molecules of a fluid for a sdifferent molecule

Question 609

adhesive adn cohesive forces are equal

Answer 609

no meniscues form and liquid surface is flat

Question 610

molarity

Answer 610

the number of moles of solute per liter of solution: 1 M = 1 mol/L

Question 611

mol

Answer 611

item times avos number: 6.022 x 10^23

Question 612

molarity times volume (in liters) equals

Answer 612

the number of moles of a substance that are present (mol = M × V).

Question 613

millimolar (mM), micromolar (µM), and nanomolar (nM) concentrations

Answer 613

1 × 10-3 M, 1 × 10-6 M, and 1 × 10-9 M

Question 614

adding salt to water causes BP of water to

Answer 614

increase, requiring a greater average kinetic energy of the liquid to produce a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure. lowering melting point

Question 615

boiling water

Answer 615

pressure of the atmosphere = pressure to vaporize

Question 616

Vapor pressure

Answer 616

the pressure of the vapor phase that exists (to some degree) immediately above the surface of any liquid. A higher vapor pressure indicates that a larger number of solvent particles were able to escape the liquid and enter the gas phase. When vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid’s surface, the liquid will boil. more solute particles causes a reduction in vapor pressure

Question 617

BP = vapor pressure reduction

Answer 617

the lower the vapor pressure, the more energy that will be required to increase that vapor pressure to a level that matches the atmospheric pressure. In other words, the more solute particles present, the lower the vapor pressure, and the higher the boiling point.

Question 618

freezing point depression

Answer 618

solute molecules disrupt the lattice structure of the frozen solvent, so more added solute corresponds to more “difficulty” freezing and a lower freezing point.

Question 619

why solid ice is more dense than liquid

Answer 619

The bent structure of the water molecule and ratio of covalently-bonded hydrogens to lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom maximizes the hydrogen bonding that occurs in the solid phase, producing a hexagonal structure with large empty spaces. negative slope bc solid less dense than liquid

Question 620

SO32-

Answer 620

sulfite

Question 621

SO42-

Answer 621

sulfate

Question 622

Ionic compounds

Answer 622

one or more cations (positively-charged ions) paired with one or more anions (negatively-charged ion no net overall charged

Question 623

in β-minus decay, a neutron is converted to a proton as an electron is emitted.

Answer 623

define

Question 624

Boiling chips

Answer 624

provide nucleation sites that give the liquid a place to start forming bubbles to prevent superheating

Question 625

vacuum distillation

Answer 625

lower the boiling points of the substances to be distilled.

Question 626

aldehydes have lwer boiling points than hydrogen bonding

Answer 626

aldehydes end in -al , hydrogen bonding/carb acid end in -oic acid

Question 627

Formal charge =

Answer 627

of valence electrons - sticks - dots

Question 628

N has

Answer 628

5 valence electrons

Question 629

The preferred ion configuration of many elements

Answer 629

the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas; elements will gain or lose electrons until they have the same valence electron configuration as this noble gas. complete octet

Question 630

The attractive force of this positively-charged nucleus on the atom’s negatively-charged valence electrons is termed the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). `

Answer 630

As the number of protons in the nucleus increases from left to right across a period (or row) of the table, Zeff also increases, since each additional proton adds positive charge to the nucleus.

Question 631

the atoms with the largest radii

Answer 631

bottom left

Question 632

ionic radius

Answer 632

cations (positive ions) tend to have smaller ionic radii than the atomic radii of their corresponding uncharged elements. This is because an uncharged atom must lose one or more electrons to become positively charged. On the other hand, for anions (negative ions), the ionic radius is typically larger than the corresponding atomic radius, since these species must gain electrons, and thus become slightly larger, to take on their negative forms.

Question 633

torque

Answer 633

``` frsin theta perpendicular sin (90)= 1 ```

Question 634

calculations

Answer 634

v = (6 mm) / (0.2 s) = 30 mm/s = 3 x 10-2 m/s

Question 635

Competitive inhibitors increase the Km of their associated enzymatic reactions without altering the Vmax value,

Answer 635

fact

Question 636

km

Answer 636

Km is the substrate concentration required to reach Vmax/2

Question 637

Competitive inhibition is when the inhibitor directly competes with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme.

Answer 637

This increases Km since it now takes more substrate to ensure half of the active sites are occupied. If enough substrate is supplied, it will outcompete the inhibitor; therefore, Vmax does not change, although more substrate is needed to reach it.

Question 638

noncompetitive inhibition,

Answer 638

Vmax is decreased. Since these inhibitors do not compete with the substrate, their activity is unaffected by substrate concentration. Since the inhibitor always affects a consistent proportion of the available enzyme, Vmax is reduced.

Question 639

Uncompetitive inhibition

Answer 639

thereby decreasing Vmax. Km also decreases to exactly the same degree as Vmax.

Question 640

N2

Answer 640

a very inert gas (Noble) and therefore unreactive

Question 641

power

Answer 641

v^2/r

Question 642

paraell

Answer 642

1/r + 1/r

Question 643

terpenes

Answer 643

think hormones

Question 644

IR peaks 1700-1750

Answer 644

C=O

Question 645

Ir peaks 3200 3500

Answer 645

-OH

Question 646

homotropic regulation

Answer 646

when a molecule serves as a substrate for its target enzyme, as well as a regulatory molecule of the enzyme's activity. O2 is a homotropic allosteric modulator of hemoglobin. The four subunits of hemoglobin actually bind to oxygen cooperatively, meaning the binding of oxygen to one of the four subunits will increase the likelihood that the remaining sites will bind with oxygen as well. This is the cause of the sigmoidal curve shown in the figure.

Question 647

indicator in pH

Answer 647

usually near ht desired pH | weak acid and strong base- around 9! or greater than 7

Question 648

THIOL

Answer 648

R-SH

Question 649

amide

Answer 649

[R(C=O)NR]

Question 650

amine

Answer 650

(R-NR2)

Question 651

ester

Answer 651

R(C=O)OR’

Question 652

sulfoxide

Answer 652

[R–S(=O)–R']

Question 653

solid to liquid to gas

Answer 653

endothermic | absorbing heat

Question 654

gas to liquid to solid

Answer 654

release heat, making them exothermic reactions

Question 655

isomers

Answer 655

he same molecular formula) but different structural or spatial arrangements of these ingredients.

Question 656

chain isomers

Answer 656

diff Skelton arrwangement

Question 657

functional isomers

Answer 657

isomers where the molecular formula remains the same, but the type of functional group in the atom is changed. For example, a compound with an oxygen atom in addition to several carbon atoms and the corresponding number of hydrogens could be an alcohol with an –OH group, or an ether with a C–O–C group.

Question 658

Positional isomers

Answer 658

given functional group in different locations (e.g., 1-pentanol vs. 2-pentanol).

Question 659

Stereoisomers

Answer 659

involve different ways that substituents can be positioned. Cis (Z) -trans (E) isomerism

Question 660

work

Answer 660

W = F⋅d⋅cos(θ) delta KEf - KeI which can equal PE ?

Question 661

power=

Answer 661

work/time

Question 662

Watt =

Answer 662

J/s

Question 663

1 Kw

Answer 663

1000 J/s

Question 664

(P = Fv)

Answer 664

constant force times constant velocoty

Question 665

P = IV)

Answer 665

current and velocity

Question 666

E = hc/λ,

Answer 666

``` h = Planck’s constant (6.62 x 10-34 J•s) C = speed of light = (3 x 108 m/s) E = given = ```

Question 667

Cupric

Answer 667

"Cupric" tells us that we are using the Cu2+ (or copper [II]) cation.

Question 668

highest Ka

Answer 668

A higher Ka is associated with stronger acidity. dding electron-withdrawing functional groups (like fluorine atoms) provides inductive stabilization of the conjugate base by pulling electron density away from the negatively-charged position (shown below). This stabilization increases the acidity of the original compound. Inductive effects increase if the electron-withdrawing groups are closer to the acid and if more of them are present.

Question 669

oxidative phosphorylation

Answer 669

phosphorylate ADP into ATP is final step is the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH 2 to O 2 by a series of electron carriers. This process, which takes place in mitochondria, is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms

Question 670

V = 2πr/T

Answer 670

yep

Question 671

Fc = mv2/r

Answer 671

yes

Question 672

suciice inhibitor

Answer 672

suicide inhibitor acts as an irreversible enzyme inhibitor. occurs when an enzyme binds the inhibitor (structurally a substrate analogue) and forms an irreversible complex with it, usually through a covalent bond. This can involve the inhibitor being chemically modified by the enzyme during the normal course of catalysis to produce a reactive group that is specifically responsible for the formation of the irreversible inhibitor-enzyme complex.

Question 673

only amino acid that is chiral is

Answer 673

glycine (G)

Question 674

thin layer chromatography with a silica plate

Answer 674

polar substance will move slower on the plate due to polar-polar interactions between the substance and the plate. This means that the Rf value of a polar substance will be smaller than that of a nonpolar substance since the substance will move less on the plate compared to the solvent front than a nonpolar substance would.

Question 675

imine

Answer 675

C=N

Question 676

benzenes are

Answer 676

Benzene, the aromatic hydrocarbon shown below, is very stable (inert) in the presence of acids and bases and will not react with the reagents.

Question 677

speed =

Answer 677

max flow rate x area | example- -screenshot

Question 678

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

Answer 678

is the enzyme that mediates pyruvate decarboxylation. This step is the critical link between anaerobic and aerobic respiration. With this link broken, cells would be limited to anaerobic respiration. Thus, a decrease in aerobic respiration makes sense in this context acetyl COA is product and NADH

Question 679

geometric isomers

Answer 679

each of two or more compounds which differ from each other in the arrangement of groups with respect to a double bond, ring, or other rigid structure.

Question 680

epimers

Answer 680

an epimer is one of a pair of diastereomers. The two epimers have opposite configuration at only one stereogenic center out of at least two. All other stereogenic centers in the molecules are the same in each.

Question 681

anomers

Answer 681

An anomer is an epimer at the hemiacetal/hemiketal carbon in a cyclic saccharide, an atom called the anomeric carbon.

Question 682

imide

Answer 682

n organic compound containing the group —CONHCO—, with double bonded Oxygens at end

Question 683

urea

Answer 683

Nh2 on either side of the carboxylic acid

Question 684

acetate

Answer 684

Ch3 to a carboxylic acid to a oxygen

Question 685

ether

Answer 685

r-o-r

Question 686

ester

Answer 686

r to carboxylic acid to oxygen to r

Question 687

uv spec

Answer 687

measures conjugation | double bonds

Question 688

conjugation

Answer 688

Conjugation refers to the presence of alternating double bonds within the structure of an organic molecule. From its name alone, we can see that 1,3,5,7-octatetraene has such a structure.

Question 689

ammeter

Answer 689

measures current

Question 690

Moving from a lower to a higher energy level is associated with absorption of energy,

Answer 690

emission is associated with moving from higher to lowe

Question 691

The question stem states that free radicals can cause cancer, which is a result of poorly regulated cell growth and division. Cancer is generally a product of mutations in DNA that disrupt these processes. Therefore, we must choose the answer that targets DNA.

Answer 691

nucleic acids

Question 692

gamma particle

Answer 692

has no mass

Question 693

alpha partlce

Answer 693

has the most mass with 2 protons and 2 neutrons

Question 694

SDS page

Answer 694

SDS-PAGE is an electrophoretic technique which involves the binding of the anionic detergent SDS to a polypeptide chain. SDS binding denatures and imparts an even distribution of charge per unit mass to the protein, resulting in fractionation by approximate size alone during electrophoresis.

Question 695

D and L are

Answer 695

releative configurations

Question 696

R and S

Answer 696

absolute configurations

Question 697

weak acid

Answer 697

HF due to covalent bonding

Question 698

galvanic cells

Answer 698

The passage states that the cell is meant to act like a galvanic cell, meaning that it proceeds in a spontaneous fashion. Since galvanic cells always have cell potentials that are greater than 0, we can eliminate any negative options

Question 699

calcium carbonate

Answer 699

CaCO3

Question 700

Phosphorous acid

Answer 700

H3PO3

Question 701

Phosphoric acid

Answer 701

H3PO4

Question 702

perphosphoric acid.

Answer 702

H3PO5

Question 703

hypophosphorous acid.

Answer 703

H3PO2