Chile COPY Flashcards

Question

Describe Maule Valley

Answer 1

Chile's largest wine region.

Answer 2

Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc for less expensive wines.

Answer 3

Covers valleys of Cachapoal and Colchagua. Warm, fruity reds, Carmenere and Merlot

Answer 4

Cabernet Sauvignon

Answer 5

Neat coast Sauv Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir

Answer 6

Chile. Eastern 1/2 has reds, cooler areas closer to sea have whites.

Answer 7

Chile. Rocky soils. Good acidity. Syrah and Cabernet.

Answer 8

Chile. Calcium deposits in soil. Chardonnay, Syrah and Sauv Blanc.

Answer 9

Chile. Arid area with cool air and fog. Mainly for Pisco but some Sauv Blanc, Carmenere and Syrah.

Answer 10

By DO, regions named after valleys and rivers that flow from Andres to the Coast

Answer 11

Sauv Blanc, Chardonnay, Muscat de Alexandria (for Pisco). Also Viognier, Riesling, Gewürztraminer

Answer 12

Pais, Cab Sauv (most planted), Merlot, Camrenere. Some Syrah, Pinot Noir, Cab Franc, Malbec, Petit Verdot and Mourvèdre

Answer 13

Rainfall restricted to winter months. Temperate climate. Sharp day- night temp variation making ripening season longer.

Answer 14

Country long and thin. Atacama Desert in north. Ice fields of Patagonia to south- between Andes Mtns and Pacific Ocean. Humboldt Current cools area.

Answer 15

Elqui Valley, Umari Valley, Choapa Valley, Aconcagua Valley, Casablanca Valley, San Antonio Valley (Leyda), Maipo Valley, Rape Valley (Cachapoal, Colchagua), Curico Valley, Maule Valley, Itata Valley, Bio- Bio and Malleco

Answer 16

Stretches 3000 miles up Wst coast of South America, separated by the Andes.

Answer 17

``` Atacama Coquimbo Aconcagua Valle Central (Central Valley) Sur (Southern Regions) Austral Region- Southern most limit of grapegrowing in Chile ```

Answer 18

Varies considerably from North to South Nth- Atacama and Coquimbo- desert like Central Valley- cool night time temps (Andes), Coast, Cold maritime Humboldt Current cools vines. South- More rain, growing pattern cooler and shorter.

Answer 19

``` Est 1996 75% rule: vintage, varietal, DO of must Many wineries observe 85% rule (to comply with EU) Hybrids forbidden Min alc 11.5% Red grapes 73% Reserva and Reserva Especial 12% Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva 12.5% ```

Answer 20

Nth most wine region Viti through irrigation Wine's usually distilled Pisco and table grapes in Coquimbo, two valleys- Elqui and Limari- getting good rep Syrah= Elqui (cool, high- altitude v/ yards). Limestone and cooler climate= Limari

Answer 21

Named from river (same name), alluvial soils, reds dominate (Cab Sauv/ Merlot), commune of Panquehue moderate climate allowing Viti, Other subregions- Casablanca and San Antonio on coast, coolest wine regions, Casablanca most prominent, crisp, fresh, Sav Blanc and Chardonnay, San Antonio, just below: 4 regions (Leyda, Lo Abarca, Rosario, Malvilla)- whites, but P/ Noir looking good

Answer 22

Between Andes and Hills on Coast, Oldest most est. region, Nth to South: Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curico and Maule Valley, Maipo most famous (Cab Sauv)- 10,000 hectares, then Merlot, Chard, Carmenere. Due to proximity to Santiago many est. houses in region (Concha Y Toro- big company, Santa Rita, Cousino Macol). Cab thrives in the well- drained, low slopes of Andes.

Answer 23

Cachapoal and Colchagua, Sth of Maipo, Cab Sauv important but Carmenere catching up, Colchagua, larger Central part of Valley, warm climate, fertile soils. Used to be a bulk wine region.

Answer 24

Central Valley DO, Maule: one of the largest regions, more vines than Maipo Valley (quality variable). Cab overtook Pais as most planted grape,bulk wine still a large part. Curico: two subregions; Lontve and Teno Cab Sauv dominates, but Sauv Blanc & Chardonnay represented.

Answer 25

3 valleys; Itata, Bio- Bio, Malesco (Southrn most) Sparser cultivation, Pais and Muscat of Alexandria most planted. Malesco tiny with only a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay

Answer 26

Extremely cool climate, mean average temp: 13 degrees. Frequent morning fog and strong breeze from the Pacific a ocean.

Answer 27

Costa Enter Cordilleras (between mountains), valley areas between coast and Andes. Andes 85% of grapes must be harvested to qualify.

Answer 28

Spanish settlers planted vinifera vines in the 16th Century. Modern wine industry began in the mid nineteenth century during growth of a wealthy middle class through mineral mining. French style became fashionable, so Plantings were of Bordeaux varieties. Much foreign investment and modernisation since the fall of General Pinochet in 1989. Modern wineries with stainless steel equipment have resulted in a clean, new world style.

Answer 29

Sales and exports are increasing rapidly with 60% of total production being exported. Main export countries are UK and USA. Republic of Ireland is also an important market.

Answer 30

Appellation system set up in 1995. Wine stating a Denomination of Origin must contain 75% of grapes grown from that region (85% if imported into the EU). Classification within regions is on four tiers: regions, subregions, zones and areas. A wine may state any of the four on its label.

Answer 31

Near perfect grape growing conditions throughout its length. Chile is a long maritime country with grapes planted along its length and over different altitudes. Most vineyards are located in the warm dry Central Valley, between the coastal cordillera and the Andes. Due to varying height of the coastal range, the cooling influence of Pacific breezes varies greatly. The influence of the Pacific breeze is here is more important than latitude. Some vineyards are planted on the lower slopes of the coastal range others are being planted on the foothills of the Andes where they benefit from the cooling effects of altitude. Some cooler areas can be affected by spring frost.

Answer 32

Best quality Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir come from the Casablanca and San Antonio subregions. Located close to the sea, maritime influence of the Humbolt current. Morning fogs similar to those in California show ripening and complex flavours develop.

Answer 33

Most important of the five viticultural regions. Located between the Andes and the Coastal cordillera, and cooled by the Pacific Humbolt current. Good conditions for Bordeaux varietals. Over 90% of all exported Chilean wine comes from here. Four main sub-regions exist in the Central Valley. Maipo: Old Cabernet Sauvignon vines producing high quality wines in the warm site climate of valley surrounding Santiago. Slowly taken over by city expansion. Rapel: Divided into Colchagua Valley (outstanding Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Carmenere, either varietal or blends) and Cachapoal (also developing a reputation for Cabernet Sauvignon and Carmenere). Considerable foreign investment here and the wines show great promise. Curico: Further south in the Central Valley, cooler wetter conditions due to cloud cover and latitude. A wide range of varieties grown. Maule: The wettest of the four regions. Cab Sauv important here, along with Pais for the local market.

Answer 34

Research into better regions for grape growing has led to planting on hills and nearer the sea. Bio- Bio and Itata are two important sub regions, irrigation is unnesscessary and the climate is suitable for aromatic whites such as Gewürztraminer and Riesling.

Answer 35

Northern most wine region in Chile, important for growing grapes for Pisco production, recent development of vineyards for quality wine production, divided into 2 sub- regions: Elqui Valley- Northern most region and also highest region in Chile, with vineyards up to 2000m. Altitude creates long, cool growing conditions perfect for Cab Sauv and Syrah production. Limari Valley- Situated on an east/ west valley, this region benefits from morning fogs flowing in from the Pacific which cool the climate allowing for fine wine production. Low (80- 100mm per year) rainfall necessitates drip irrigation.

Answer 36

High yields are commonplace, but not incomparable with high fruit quality. Low rainfall means irrigation is essential, snow melt from the Andes provides the water for drip irrigation. Drip irrigation has lead to an increasing problem with nematodes. Despite Chile's phylloxera free status many new plantings are on grafted rootstock with nematode resistance.

Answer 37

Both made as varietal and blended wines. The wines show intense berry fruit and capsicum.

Answer 38

Pungent red with velvet tannins. Chile's speciality red. Very difficult to ripen the tannins and avoid herbaceous flavours without having very high alcohol levels.

Answer 39

Showing great promise, especially in San Antonio and Casablanca.

Answer 40

Ripe and healthy fruit leads to a purity of flavour. Crisp citrus and apple characters are usually complemented by toast and caramel characters from oak treatment.

Answer 41

New plantings are showing clean, ripe and tropical fruit, and generally avoiding the extreme herbaceous notes that characterise many other Sauvignons. (Some wines sold as Sauvignon Blanc in the past were actually from the Sauvignonasse variety, producing less distinctive wines- the quality of Chilean Sauvignon has improved greatly with the new plantings).

Answer 42

Some very old plantings towards the south of the Central Valley. Can make very high quality, savoury red wines.

Answer 43

Have been planted in recent years with continuing success.

Answer 44

Areas such as San Antonio produce high quality Syrah with ripe, black fruits backed up by a subtle pepperiness.

Answer 45

Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Carmenère, Cot/Malbec, Merlot, Mourvèdre, Nebbiolo, Petit Verdot, Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Sangiovese, Sirah, Verdot, Zinfandel

Answer 46

Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Gewürztraminer, Marsanne, Moscatel (Muscat) de Alejandría, Moscatel Rosada, Pinot Blanc, Riesling, Roussanne, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Torontel, Viognier, Pedro Ximènez

Answer 47

Seco/Sec/Dry: Max. 4 g/l (up to 9 g/l if total acidity is within 2 g/l of total residual sugar) Semi Seco/Demi-Sec/Medium Dry: 4-12 g/l (up to 18 g/l if total acidity is within 2 g/l of residual sugar) Semi Dulce/Moelleux/Medium Sweet: 12-45 g/l Dulce/Doux/Sweet: Min. 45 g/l

Answer 48

- Gran Reserva - Reserva - Reserva Especial - Reserva Privada - Gran Vino - Selección - Superior

Answer 49

- Atacama DO - Coquimbo DO - Aconcagua DO - Valle Central DO - Sur DO - Austral DO

Answer 50

Valle de Copiapó DO and Valle del Huasco DO

Answer 51

Región Vitícola: Atacama Major Towns: Copiapó DO Areas: None Major Grapes: Pisco grapes Latitude: 27° 21' S Annual Rainfall: 20 mm (less than 1 inch) Major Producers: None

Answer 52

Región Vitícola: Atacama DO Areas: None Major Grapes: Pisco grapes Latitude: 28° 27' S Annual Rainfall: Less than 100 mm (4 inches) Major Producers: Ventisquero

Answer 53

Mid 16th: vinifera vines by Spanish settlers partly to celebrate Eucharist. 1554: vine believed to arrive via Juan Jufre and Garcia de Cáceres in the Central Valley. 17th: Spain tried to ban new plantings in Chile to protect exports but governor refused & encouraged hacienda devt. 18th: reputation for quantity and low cost of wine 1830: French Claudio Gay persuaded the government to set up the Quinta Normal experimental nursery which resulted in Chile having their own vinifera cuttings and eventually protection against Phylloxera. 1851: Chilean Echazarreta travelled the world & imported Bordeaux vines. French Phylloxera refugees helped set up rich farmers’ wine-making estates. 1870-1950s: the Chilean wine industry grows v healthily (vs. Phylloxera everywhere else) and v profitably in the hands of a few private companies. Hi local demand eventually meant taxes started creeping up. 1970-early 80s: local demand declined and prices plummeted -> 50% of Chile’s vineyards pulled 1980-90s: return of democracy and plantings of international varieties + significant investments to focus more on exports

Answer 54

1. Coquimbo - Newest wine region; dry weather + cooling ocean influence delays ripening + clear skies = great conditions - Historically grape growing for Pisco & table wine production but recent devt of quality wines in: a. Elqui valley: highest wine region (up to 2,000m); desert-like climate, altitude + cool growing conditions -> Cab Sauv + Syrah & Sauvignon blanc b. Limari valley: east/west valley w morning fogs from Pacific; lo rainfall necessitates drip irrigation (desert-like climate). Cab Sauv, Carmenere & Chardonnay. Fresh wines w mineral edge. 2. Aconcagua (named after river which bisects it) a. Aconcagua (north): Mediterranean climate; hottest & driest w alluvial soils -> good red wines. Cab Sauv, Syrah, Carmenere + coastal SB. b. Casablanca: cool Mediterranean, first vines in ’82 by Conchaytoro; Winkler RegionI thanks to cool morning fogs brought by Humboldt and fewer clear days (//Carneros in California) -> slower ripening + more complex flavours. Mainly Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay & Pinot noir. Risk of spring frosts. c. San Antonio: new subregion w pronounced Pacific influence -> fresh Sauvignon Blanc & top Pinot Noirs (Leyda). 3. Central Valley (90% of exported wines) a. Maipo: most famous but not largest (10,500ha); hottest subregion just south of Santiago; Mediterranean climate; sandy soils w gravel top Cabernet Sauvignon & Chardonnay. Most bodegas’ headquarters based there. b. Rapel (31,000ha): divided into Cachapoal & Colchagua subregions; Mainly alluvial & clay soil + 600-1,000m hi; mainly Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot & Camenere; home Luis Felipe Edwards & Ch. Lafite’s Los Vascos. c. Curicó (19,000ha): cooler wetter conditions due to cloud cover & latitude; known for quality Chardonnay but also good value Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc/Sauvignon & Merlot; home to Vina Montes & Torres d. Maule (29,300ha): wettest of four subregions; Mediterranean climate, volcanic soils & rolling hills; mainly País but also Cabernet Sauvignon & Chardonnay. 4. Southern regions (14,000ha) - New areas; mainly on hills or nearer the sea. a. Itata: Mediterranean climate w hi rainfall. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot & Chardonnay b. Bio-Bio: moderate Mediterranean climate w highest rainfall in CL, strong winds -> less sunshine, longer growing seasons -> devt of Riesling and Gewürztraminer. c. Malleco: moderate Mediterranean climate w hi rainfall. Chardonnay & Pinot Noir.

Answer 55

* Isolated by coastline on west, Andes on the east, Atacama desert on the north, Antartic on the south. * Near perfect grape growing conditions. * Wine producing regions same latitude as southern Spain

Answer 56

* Mediterranean climate w warm, dry summer and rainy winters. Hi diurnal range * Hot climate mitigated by the influence of the Pacific (cold Humboldt current) & cool downdrafts from the Andes. * Between Napa valley and Bordeaux

Answer 57

* 3,000miles of Coastline + Andes at 7,000m * Most Chile’s vineyards planted on flat, fertile soil where water is available or irrigation easier. * Aconcagua & south of Maipo: alluvial soils * Maipo & Cacahpoal: loam, clay & sand * South Rapel & Maule: some tuffeau soils * South Curico to Bio Bio: volcanic soils

Answer 58

Until 1990s, País most common grape and still #2 w 15,000ha. Assimilated to Criolla Chica (Arg) & Mission (Calif.)

Answer 59

Cabernet Sauvignon - Brought from France mid 19th - Late ripening; varietal or blended - Aconcagua, Maipo & Rapel - Eucalyptus notes in Alto Maipo Merlot - Varietal or blended - Spicy, green peppery aromas - Often field blended w Carmenere Carmenere - Widely cultivated in Bordeaux in 18th - Discovered in Chile in ‘94 - Late ripener, susceptible to coulure (-> low yields) - Difficult to get ripe tannins & non-herbaceous aromas Syrah - Hi quality in San Antonio w ripe, black fruits + subtle pepperiness Pinot Noir - Showing promise in San Antonio (Leyda) & Casablanca

Answer 60

Chardonnay - Crisp citrus & apple flavours - Use of oak for toast & caramel characters Sauvignon Blanc - Ripe, tropical fruit in new plantings - Sometimes mixed up w Sauvignonasse or Sauvignon vert in the past.

Answer 61

- 110,000ha of vineyards - Irrigation is key in nearly 50% of all vineyards; either natural (melting Andes snow) or drip irrigation (since 90s) Irrigation less necessary in coastal areas of southern regions - Relatively hi yields (70hl/ha).Formerly gobelet system (inherited from Spanish practices) but more Guyot. - Harvest: end of February for early maturing grapes (Chardonnay) to late April (Cab Sauv) & May (Careener). - Phylloxera-free but nematodes main risk as rootstocks have low resistance. Powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot common.

Answer 62

Dramatic revolution since 80s with large LT investments put in the industry to introduce pneumatic presses, oak barrels, stainless steel, modern filters & temperature control.

Answer 63

- Reds: good value young wines from Cab Sauv, Carmenere & Merlot - Whites: clean & well made Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blancs esp. in cooler areas (Casablanca & San Antonio)

Answer 64

800million btls/year, 1⁄2 of Argentina. 9th biggest producer in the world with 3.8% of 2010 world wine production

Answer 65

• Key wine exporting companies partly own vineyards & partly buy grapes oConcha y Toro – 5m cases in the UK - Largest south American wine producer (8,800ha/30m cases/872m); recently acquired Fetzer vineyards - Founded in 1883 Don Melchor de Santiago Concha y Toro; originally brought Bdx grapes; started exporting in ‘33 Produces most of Chilean key grapes; brands: Casillero del Diablo, Cono Sur - Notable wines: late harvest Sauvignon Blanc from Maule & Don Melchor single vineyard Cabernet Sauvignon oSanta Rita - 2,000ha; 2nd largest land owning winery; sustainable agriculture & modern techniques for better quality wines oVina Montes: - Established in ‘72; 490ha in Colchagua valley; quality at all levels; top wines: AlphaM Cab Sauv & Folly Syrah. o Errazuriz: established in 1870 by Don Maximiano Errazuriz in Aconcagua valley * Devt of estate wineries (e.g. Los Vascos, Montes) that only use own grapes. * Foreign investors: Mondavi, Lafite-Rothschild (Almaviva w Concha y toro), Torres

Answer 66

* New wine classification introduced by decree 464 * Key criteria: 85% of the grapes must come from the communities within the 3 defined areas 1. Costa: a. Limarí valley: Ovalle b. Casablanca Valley: Casablanca c. San Antonio Valley: Leyda valley (San Juan & Marga Marga) 2. Entre cordilleras: between coast & Andes; 60% of overall production mainly reds a. Limarí valley: Punitaqui b. Aconcagua: Panquehue c. Maipo valley: Isla de Maipo, Talagante, Melipilla, Alhué & María Pinto d. Cachapoal valley: Rancagua, Peumo e. Colchagua valley: Nancagua, Santa Cruz, Palmilla, Peralillo, Marchigue f. Curicó valley: Rauco, Sagrada Familia g. Maule valley: Talca, Pencahue, San Rafael, San Javier, Villa Alegre, Parral, Linares, Cauquentes h. Itata valley: Chillán, Quillón i. Bío-Bío valley: Yumbel, Mulchén j. Malleco valley: Traiguén 3. Andes a. Elqui valley: Vicuna, Paiguano b. LImarí valley: Monte Patria, Rio Hurtado c. Choapa valley: Salamanca, Illapel d. Maipo valley: Santiago, Pirque, Puente Alto, Buin e. Colchagua valley: San Fernando, Chimbarongo f. Chacapoal valley: Requinoa, Rengo g. Curicó valley: Romeral, Molina h. Maule valley: San Clemente

Answer 67

An El Niño year generated an unusual amount of rain, especially in Casablanca, Rapel, Maipo and Colchagua. Red varieties were most affected, as the worst of the rain came after most whites had been harvested. The result is a 25% reduction in yield and very variable quality. The only saving grace may be lower alcohol and fresher acidity in the best wines.

Answer 68

A very early harvest after higher-than-average temperatures throughout the seasons translated into lower acidity levels, requiring attentive handling in the winery to achieve balance.

Answer 69

Widespread frost caused crop loss of up to 70%, but what remained made very good quality wine, showing plenty of concentration and complexity.

Answer 70

Cool weather that was better for later ripening varieties - so Carmenère is especially promising. Early ripeners such as Sauvignon Blanc were less good, with unripe characteristics.

Answer 71

A cool vintage, thanks to La Niña. Grapes were universally healthy at harvest, and yields were up to 18% higher than average. Quality is good, with impressive varietal typicality.

Answer 72

Another cool year, with many whites recording very low alcohol levels. Elegance and balance are keywords, in a similar style to 2010.

Answer 73

The year of the earthquake, which struck Maule and Curicó on February 27. Mercifully, the growing season was already late, allowing producers to recover as best they could in time for harvest. Overall it was a cool year, best suited to varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Syrah, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir.

Answer 74

Warm and healthy for whites, with Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay both achieving good quality levels. Certain red varieties suffered from dehydration again - Merlot most notably - and alcohol levels were high.

Answer 75

A very cold and long winter, leading to considerable frost damage. Summer was then very hot and dry, leading to widespread drought. Dehydration was a problem, especially in Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Answer 76

Harvested roughly 10% less than usual. White varieties had good natural balance, and there was little call for acidification. Reds were moderately lighter in alcohol than average, with high acidity giving a particularly fresh style.

Answer 77

Moderately cooler than 2005, and generally healthy in the vineyard at harvest time. Rounded, balanced tannins with modest concentration made reds better for short or medium term cellaring, but not long term.

Answer 78

Outstanding, with a long growing season and mild temperatures. Quality was much admired across all varieties and regions (although some Chardonnay in Casablanca suffered from moderate rot).

Answer 79

Far more challenging than 2003, with a cold winter and some hard frosts. Nevertheless, quality was good, thanks to a hot early summer followed by cooler conditions towards harvest.

Answer 80

Conventional, undramatic weather across the country. Quality is excellent across most varieties and regions.

Answer 81

Extensive rain and rot damage in the south, but was dry and healthy in the north, albeit with yields up to 25% below the norm.

Answer 82

A hot, dry summer with making concentrated reds, especially Cabernet Sauvignon and Carmenère.

Answer 83

Also has a Central Valley, a large region comprising the subregions (from north to south) Maipo, Rapel, Maule, and Southern, and an appellation commonly found on many wine labels, especially those grown in more than one region.

Answer 84

Is a very minor dark-skinned grape variety in Bordeaux today but was, according to Daurel, widely cultivated in the Médoc in the early 18th century and, with its parent cabernet franc, established the reputations of its best properties. He reports that the vine is vigorous and used to produce exceptionally good wine but was abandoned because of its susceptibility to coulure and resultant low yields. It yields small quantities of exceptionally deep-coloured, full-bodied wines that can taste decidedly herbaceous if the grapes are not completely ripe. Ch Clerc Milon, pauillac classed growth, usually includes some in its assemblage and the odd varietal emerged in Bordeaux in the early 2000s. Its new power base is chile, where plantings had reached 10,000 ha/24,700 acres by 2012, particularly as a result of correct vine identification rather than new plantings. It was discovered in 1994 that a substantial proportion of the vines previously believed to be Merlot are in fact this historic variety, presumably imported directly from Bordeaux in the late 19th century. It ripens even later than Cabernet Sauvignon and if yields are limited, by grafting on to low-vigour rootstocks, for example, has the potential to make very respectable wines, combining some of the charm of Merlot with the structure of Cabernet Sauvignon, although for many winemakers it is best as an ingredient in a bordeaux blend. Correct identification also grew the official total of Carmenère plantings in Italy from 45 to 1,000 ha between the censuses of 2000 and 2010. Most of these were previously thought to be cabernet franc in northern and north eastern Italy. Much is used for blending but the likes of San Leonardo in trentino and Ca’del Bosco in lombardy make a sturdy varietal Carmenero. Even more recently dna profiling showed that the variety known as cabernet gernischt in china is in fact Carmenère.

Answer 85

Chilean name for the historic grape variety also known as criolla chica, mission, and Listán Prieto. It is most common in Maule and Bío-Bío in the south and is mainly grown in old, unirrigated plots by elderly farmers, often as field blends. Accurate statistics are elusive but there are probably about 10,000 ha/25,000 acres in total. The variety used to be scorned but torres have made a thoroughly respectable sparkling pink from it and it is slowly appearing in more export quality bottlings.

Answer 86

Old Friulan name for sauvignonasse, now replaced by friulano. California grows a few hundred acres of the variety they still call Tocai Friulano which is also produced by Millbrook in the Hudson Valley, new york. Tocai Rosso is used as a synonym for grenache noir in the veneto.

Answer 87

Old Bordeaux white grape hardly encountered there today but also known as Sauvignon Vert and, in Friuli, friulano (once Tocai Friulano). It is quite distinct from the more famous sauvignon blanc but the two were long confused in Chile and the term ‘Sauvignon’ was once liberally applied. In general the wines produced from Sauvignonasse are much less crisp and aromatic than those of Sauvignon Blanc and this vine is much more sensitive to downy mildew and rot. According to official statistics Argentina may have more ‘Sauvignon Vert’ planted than Chile. In Slovenia the variety is now known as Zeleni Sauvignon. It can be found to a limited extent further east.

Answer 88

California and Mexican name for the pais of Chile and criolla chica of Argentina, both synonyms for Listán Prieto. Historically very important as a survivor from the earliest vinifera vine varieties to be cultivated in the Americas, this was the original black grape variety planted for sacramental purposes by Franciscan missionaries in mexico, the south west of the united states, and california in the 17th and 18th centuries. Mission was an important variety in California until the spread of phylloxera in the 1880s and about 600 acres/240 ha persist, mainly in the south of the Central Valley.

Answer 89

Anomalous seasonal ocean current along the coast of Peru, and part of a much larger atmospheric phenomenon called the ‘southern oscillation’, which can have a substantial impact on vineyard production in several countries where climate is affected by the Pacific Ocean. The phenomenon recurs every two to ten years, and is associated with atmospheric pressure changes in the South Pacific; it can be predicted well in advance. Typical but severe effects were felt in 1998, which started with serious flooding in California and continued there throughout spring and early summer to retard the likely harvest dates. The Australian 1997–8 growing season on the other hand was generally affected by drought, decreasing quantity but sometimes increasing quality. There was a similar weather pattern in New Zealand. Chile’s wine regions experienced a generally cooler, wetter growing season with downy mildew in some areas for the first time. In Argentina around Mendoza, summer storms before vintage created bunch rot problems. Latest reports are that hopes are fading of a strong El Niño in 2014 to alleviate drought in California.

Answer 90

In a viticultural sense is the amount of vegetative growth, an important aspect of any vine. This may seem of unlikely interest to wine drinkers but it is a vital factor in wine quality. Very low-vigour vines do not always have sufficient leaf area to ripen grapes properly, while high-vigour vines typically produce thin, pale, acidic wines often wrongly thought to result from overcropping. Vigour changes through a vine’s lifetime, as discussed in vine age. Vines of high vigour show a lack of balance between shoot and fruit growth. Vigorous vineyards show rapid shoot growth in the spring, and shoots continue to grow late into the growing season, even past veraison, the beginning of fruit ripening. Shoots on vigorous vines have long internodes, thick stems, large leaves, and many, usually long, lateral shoots. Vigorous vineyards are generally, but not necessarily, associated with high yields. Rank vegetative growth may produce so much shade that fruitfulness declines, leading to even more vegetative growth and a loss of varietal character, colour, body, and general wine quality. Vine vigour is easy to quantify using pruning weights and other vine measurements as outlined by Smart and Robinson, and these approaches, along with scoring, can be used as a form of quality control. For an alternative but related approach to the assessment of vine vigour using remote sensing, see normalized difference vegetation index. The vigour of a vineyard is essentially dependent on two features: the size and health of the root system, and the pruning level. First, what grows above ground is some sort of mirror of what grows below. A vine with a large and healthy root system will have the reserves of carbohydrates and balance of hormones to support considerable vigorous shoot growth. On the other hand, a vine with a small and/or unhealthy root system, be it due to shallow soil, drought, root pests such as phylloxera, or diseases such as trunk disease or armillaria root rot, will support only low-vigour growth. Vines should be pruned to bud numbers relative to the amount of early shoot growth they can support. This is the concept of balanced pruning, and one criterion used is to retain at winter pruning about 25–30 buds per kg of pruning weight. Use of this sort of rule means that the subsequent shoot growth will be in balance with the vine’s carbohydrate reserves, ensuring balance between shoot and fruit growth, and moderate vigour. High vigour is a common problem of modern vineyards, for many and varied reasons. The vines may be planted in a region with a benign climate on too deep a soil, which is well supplied with water (from rainfall and/or irrigation) and nutrients, especially nitrogen (from natural fertility or fertilizers or added compost). Such soils are said to have high soil potential in that they promote excessive vine vigour. Modern control methods can also keep vines free of stress associated with weeds, pests, and diseases. canopy management techniques are used to maintain yield and wine quality in such situations. An alternative approach is to devigorate the vines, most commonly by controlling the water supply, which is of course easier to do when irrigating in an arid climate than when vineyards are supplied by rainfall alone. cover crops that compete for the available water are another useful tool. Other techniques include nutrient stressing, increasing crop load by leaving more buds at winter pruning, or by growing shoots downwards as in the geneva double curtain training system.

Answer 91

This small yellow root-feeding aphid has probably had a more damaging impact on wine production than any other vine pest, or any vine disease. It attacks only grapevines, and kills vines by attacking their roots. For many years after it first invaded Europe there was no known cure. The effects of phylloxera were first noted in France in 1863, just as the country was recovering from another great scourge of 19th-century European viticulture: oidium, or powdery mildew, which was first noted in 1847. Like powdery mildew, and the other fungal diseases yet to arrive (downy mildew in 1878 and black rot in 1885), the phylloxera louse was an unwelcome import from America which devastated European vineyards until appropriate control measures were found. In the history of agriculture it rivals the potato blight of Ireland as a plant disease with widespread social effects. In France, for example, almost 2.5 million ha/6.2 million acres of vineyards were destroyed, the aphid making no distinction between the vineyards of the most famous châteaux and those of humble peasants. For individual French vine-growers from the late 1860s, the sight of their vineyards dying literally before their eyes was particularly traumatic, although the epidemic soon spread elsewhere. Phylloxera invasion had a major social and economic impact, involving national governments and local committees, and requiring international scientific collaboration. For a while the very existence of the French wine industry was threatened. Phylloxera has had several scientific names. Initially called Phylloxera vastatrix (the devastator) by the French scientist J.-E. Planchon, and also Phylloxera vitifoliae (A. Fitch), it is now more correctly known as Dactylasphaera vitifoliae (H. Shimer).

Answer 92

The female phylloxera is yellow and about 1 mm/0.039 in long. Typically surrounded by masses of eggs, it is barely visible to the naked eye as it feeds on the roots. There are four to seven generations in the summer, each producing females capable of laying more eggs. As the eggs hatch, so-called ‘crawlers’ move to other roots of the vine, and some climb the trunk and can spread to other vines, or even vineyards, by the action of wind or machinery dislodging them from the foliage. Because of the movement of the crawlers through soil cracks, phylloxera tends to spread in a circle from the original infected vine. Wind-blown crawlers create secondary infections downwind. It has a complex life cycle, existing in both root-living and leaf-living forms, and causes damage to vines by injecting saliva to produce galls, by feeding on the sap, and by causing root deformities. In humid regions, there is also an associated life cycle whereby the root-hatched nymph produces a winged form which can travel longer distances, and which lays male and female eggs. The hatching female in turn lays a winter egg which develops into the stem mother or fundatrix, which lays eggs in a leaf gall (these galls typically being produced only on the leaves of american vines). Nymphs hatching from leaf galls can begin new infections as egg-laying females on roots. The principal agent for the spread of phylloxera is humans. It is most commonly transported from one vineyard to another on the roots of rootlings (one-year-old dormant plants). However, phylloxera is easily moved in the soil that sticks to implements, and by irrigation water. Research by King and colleagues in New Zealand showed that crawlers present in vine foliage lead to secondary spread over considerable distances; they are moved by machines such as foliage trimmers and harvesters which brush against foliage, and also by wind. Phylloxera is native to the east coast of the United States, and so native American vine species have generally evolved with resistance. Studies have shown that the basis of resistance is the development of cork layers beneath the wound made by phylloxera feeding on the root. This stops the invasion of other microbes (bacteria and fungi) which eventually rot the root and kill non-resistant vines. Phylloxera kills vines which have not developed this resistance, such as the European vinifera vine species from which most wine is made, by destroying the root system. When first present, the phylloxera numbers build up quickly on roots, galls are formed, and there is little apparent root damage. Phylloxera can be diagnosed by the presence on the roots of the bright-yellow females, their eggs, and the characteristic gall symptoms. Studies in South Australia, whose phylloxera-free status is maintained by quarantine, have developed a means of detection using DNA analysis of the soil. After a few years, the root rot affects the top growth, shoot growth is stunted, and leaves lose their healthy green colour. Normally a vine dies within several years of the first infection. Vines which are struggling for other reasons are more susceptible to phylloxera and succumb more quickly. Those growing on deep, fertile soil can continue to produce economic crops for many years after phylloxera attack. Phylloxera does not survive well in sandy soil, so vines planted in sand (such as on the Great Plain of hungary, those planted by Listel on the French Mediterranean coast, or colares in Portugal) are immune from attack.

Answer 93

Attempts by early European colonists in North America to establish imported V. vinifera vines met with disaster, presumably substantially because of phylloxera, to which they had no resistance—although at this time phylloxera had yet to be identified, and other American vine diseases such as pierce’s disease in Florida, downy and powdery mildew in all regions, and the very cold winters doubtless played a part. See united states, history, for more details. How did phylloxera come to Europe? In the mid 19th century there was considerable importation of living plants into Europe. This trade was supported by wealthy people who could afford elaborate gardens, greenhouses, and conservatories, and encouraged by the Victorians’ keen interest in botany. Plants could be imported dormant, or kept alive and protected from salt spray by a glass container mounted on the ship’s deck, like a modern terrarium. In 1865 alone, 460 tons of plants worth 230,000 francs were imported into France, and this trade had grown to 2,000 tons by the 1890s. In 1875, 50 tons were imported from the US and much of this was vines. Jules Planchon, Professor of Pharmacy at montpellier University, noted that rooted American vines were imported in particularly significant quantities between 1858 and 1862, and sent to parts of Europe as far apart as Bordeaux, England, Ireland, Alsace, Germany, and Portugal. No doubt phylloxera was an unsuspected passenger on vine roots at the same time. Just like the fungal disease powdery mildew, the first reporting of phylloxera was in England, in 1863, when Professor J. O. Westwood, an entomologist at Oxford University, received insect samples from a greenhouse in the London suburb of Hammersmith. Since the insects were in a leaf gall, the vine species was probably American, and these plants may even have been a source of introduction of the pest to England. In 1863, an unknown vine disease in France was being talked about, with two vineyards in the southern Rhône affected. The first printed report in France was a letter written by a veterinarian in 1867 about a vineyard planted in 1863 at St-Martin-de-Crau (only about 30 km/20 miles north east of the site of the University of montpellier’s 20th-century phylloxera-free vine collection on the Mediterranean coast, ironically), which developed unhealthy vines in summer 1866, failing to grow the following spring. It is likely that infection occurred several years beforehand. There were other reports from Narbonne in the Languedoc, and the Gard and Vaucluse départements in the southern Rhône in 1867, and from Bordeaux in 1869. (It was usually several years after the initial sighting that the louse’s predations had a serious effect; the Médoc, for example, was not commercially compromised until the late 1870s.) The first of many committees formed to resolve the phylloxera question was a Commission instigated by the Vaucluse Agricultural Society. On 15 July 1868 it began its investigation of affected vineyards in the southern Rhône. One member of the Commission was Jules Planchon, who had good training to work on phylloxera. He had spent a period at Kew Botanical Gardens in England, and subsequently became the brother-in-law of J. Lichtenstein, an amateur entomologist. Planchon noticed that dying vines had small yellow insects on their roots and noted the resemblance to an aphid Phylloxera quercus living on oak trees. He named the insect believed to be ravaging vineyards Phylloxera vastatrix. The form previously described by A. Fitch as living in the leaf galls of American vines was established by Planchon to be the same insect and therefore, according to the rules of priority, it became known as Phylloxera vitifolii (Fitch). The Hérault Commission made its findings public in August 1868 but these caused little interest in any but the local newspapers. There was a marked reluctance to accept that this little yellow insect could be causing such devastation. Other explanations current at the time were over-production, winter cold and other bad weather, weakening of the vineyards as a result of continued vegetative reproduction, soil exhaustion, and also God’s wrath at contemporary vices. Even eminent scientists of the time misdiagnosed the problem. The distinguished entomologist V. Signoret thought phylloxera was an effect not the cause, and Dr guyot thought its presence was due to over-severe pruning (the opposite of overcropping)! The debate was ended by the 1869 Commission of the Société des Agriculteurs de France headed by viticulturist L. Vialla, who gently but firmly debunked all false theories. Total French wine production fell from a peak of 84.5 million hl/2,200 million gal in 1875 to a mere 23.4 million hl in 1889. But even by June 1873 the French government was sufficiently alarmed by the spread of phylloxera to offer a large prize (300,000 francs) for a remedy, which was to be verified by experimentation carried out by the School of Agriculture at Montpellier. Up to October 1876, 696 suggestions were forwarded to Professors Durand and Jeannenot at Montpellier and between 1872 and 1876 1,044 treatments were evaluated. Among the deluge of suggestions submitted were those verging on the ridiculous, which included burying a living toad under the vine to draw the poison, and irrigating the vines with white wine. Entries were received from other countries as different as Denmark and Singapore. All of this work, however, produced little benefit, as only two treatments based on the chemical application of various forms of sulfide appeared to show much advantage. Surprisingly, carbon bisulfide failed in the evaluation even though it was later used extensively. Early attempts at commercial control of phylloxera included flooding, which was studied by the Commission in 1873. It was found that flooding in winter for weeks on end controlled the pest, but of course few vineyards were near enough to water supplies or sufficiently flat for this to be a widespread solution (although it is still used in parts of Argentina). Vineyards on sandy soils were noted to be immune, although this offered no control. The injection of the liquid carbon bisulfide was to become widespread, so that by 1888 some 68,000 ha/168,000 acres had been treated. The insecticidal properties of carbon bisulfide were found in 1854 on grain weevils, and Baron Paul Thénard evaluated it in Bordeaux in 1869. The first experiments used too high a dose, severely affecting the vines, but subsequently the practice of injecting it, mixed with water, into the soil, using about 30,000 holes per ha, became widespread. By the time of the International Phylloxera Congress at Bordeaux in 1881, two distinct schools of thought on how the industry might be saved had emerged. The chemists considered salvation lay in carbon bisulfide or related chemicals, or in flooding. In opposition were the ‘Americanists’, who advocated grafting desired varieties on to American vine species used as rootstocks. Gaston Bazille had suggested grafting in 1869 and Leo Laliman of Bordeaux drew early attention to the resistance of these species to the phylloxera. Laliman had studied the resistance of American species to powdery mildew in a collection in his vineyards since 1840. (He subsequently tried to claim the prize for controlling phylloxera.) Following successful demonstrations of the ability of American vines to withstand phylloxera, and the visit of Planchon to America in 1873, where his study was guided by the noted scientist C. V. Riley, state entomologist of Missouri, the use of grafted vines began, rising from 2,500 ha in 1880 to 45,000 ha in 1885. It was Riley who positively identified the unknown French insect as identical to the American one, a critical step in its eventual control; he was one of the first to suggest grafting European varieties to American rootstocks, and his authority and expertise on phylloxera gave weight to the suggestion. Initial American vine imports were from the north east, growing on acid soils. Vitis labrusca was found to lack resistance, but V. aestivalis, V. rupestris, and V. riparia were found to be most effective. All was not plain sailing, however. Many American species could not tolerate the calcareous soils of France (see chlorosis). A second visit to the US by Vialla led to the intervention of Texas nurseryman, breeder, and ampelographer T. V. munson. The two met in 1878, and Munson guided Vialla to species resistant to calcareous soils, V. berlandieri, V. cordifolia, and V. cinerea. Munson was rewarded for his contribution to saving French viticulture by the medal of the French Legion of Honour, and a statue in Montpellier. However, the transition to grafting was not simple. The amount of grafting to be done was almost overwhelming, and also there was a concern that the use of these foreign rootstocks (whose own wine is so often reviled for its foxy flavour) might affect wine quality. The latter objection is voiced by the uneducated even today, and in Burgundy the importation of American vines was prohibited until 1887, although the clandestine activities of growers anxious to save their vineyards forced its repeal. Eventually rootstock use became the established method for the control of phylloxera and this has had a dramatic effect on vine nursery operations worldwide, and subsequently on the spread of virus and, more recently, trunk diseases. There was a period in the late 19th century, however, when it was thought that breeding hybrids of European with American vine varieties might produce vines with sufficient phylloxera resistance not to need grafting, whose wines were not marked by the undesirable foxy flavour of some American grapes. The class of varieties so created is loosely termed french hybrids or direct producers. These efforts were generally unsuccessful, however, in that the vines had inadequate phylloxera tolerance and produced lower-quality wine, although they became popular with growers because of their high yields and their tolerance of fungal diseases. While hybrids bred in this period were not destined to remain commercially viable, they did form a useful germplasm pool of disease tolerance for highly successful breeding projects in the latter part of the 19th century (see hybrids). Nevertheless, many of the rootstocks used today (see rootstocks for a detailed list) were bred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries—although hybrids with V. vinifera as one parent have been generally found to have insufficient tolerance to phylloxera.

Answer 94

Phylloxera is now widespread around the world, having been found in California (1873), Portugal (1871), Turkey (1871), Austria (1872), Switzerland (1874), Italy (1875), Australia (1877), Spain (1878), Algeria (1885), South Africa (1885), New Zealand (1885), and Greece (1898). There are few parts of the world free from the pest, although these include parts of Australia (on which a strict quarantine is imposed), parts of China, Chile, Argentina, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, and some Mediterranean islands such as Crete, Cyprus, and Rhodes. There are also small sandy vineyards in otherwise affected wine regions (see bollinger and colares) which have never been affected by phylloxera either because of isolation or because of the soil composition. For much of the late 20th century, phylloxera has not been regarded as a serious problem, either because it was not known in a region, or because a wide range of rootstocks are available which are suited to different varieties, soil, and climate conditions along with tolerance to other pests such as nematodes. About 85% of all the world’s vineyards were estimated in 1990 to be grafted onto rootstocks presumed to be resistant to phylloxera. Late-20th-century outbreaks of phylloxera were noted on ungrafted vines in parts of Greece, England, New Zealand, Australia, Oregon, and, most dramatically, on vines grafted onto the AXR1 rootstock (see rootstocks for details) in California where the so-called ‘biotype B’ strain of phylloxera was identified. Phylloxera is known to occur naturally as a number of related strains or biotypes. King and Rilling exchanged phylloxera and vine cuttings between New Zealand and Germany, and confirmed evidence of the biotype differences between the two countries. Interestingly, the AXR1 rootstock was found not to be affected by phylloxera found in New Zealand, but it was affected by German phylloxera. New Zealand probably obtained phylloxera from California in 1885, which suggests that the biotype of phylloxera originally in California did not affect AXR1. With the introduction of other biotypes, probably on rooted vines imported from eastern American states at a time of nursery shortages in California, the demise of AXR1 began. It was found to offer insufficient phylloxera tolerance, and a significant proportion of grafted vineyards in Napa and Sonoma valleys succumbed to phylloxera and were replanted in the 1990s. No doubt one of the most important effects of the phylloxera invasion of the world’s vineyards was the inadvertent spread of virus diseases. As grafting became widespread towards the end of the 19th century, virus diseases were also spread as a common result of grafting, because virus-infected cuttings were used in grafting. A virus originally present only in the rootstock would spread to the fruiting V. vinifera variety after grafting, and vice versa. Rootstocks do not show virus symptoms, and virology in viticulture was not well understood until the 1950s. With known effects on fruit ripening, perhaps it was virus diseases more than grafting which led to the debate as to the relative merits of ‘pre-phylloxera’ and ‘post-phylloxera’ wines. Now, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, grafting has been shown to spread trunk diseases, this time caused by fungi. These diseases can be minimized by protecting mother vines from infection, hot water treatment, and improved nursery sanitation.

Answer 95

With a particularly varied climate and topography, this long, narrow south american country on the Pacific Ocean was long associated with reliable, inexpensive wines, but a new generation is beginning to show that it can produce more than bargains. The Spanish may have introduced viticulture, but since the 19th century, France has had the greatest influence on the Chilean wine industry, primarily with Bordeaux varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Carmenère. Chile is famously phylloxera-free, which means that grafting is not necessary. Since the 1990s, new zones such as San Antonio and Limarí have supplemented the traditional valleys such as Maipo, Aconcagua, and Colchagua, and southern regions such as Itata and parts of Maule that were semi-abandoned have been rediscovered as sources of new flavours and styles. Chile is one of the world’s most energetic wine exporters. Thanks to a flurry of planting, vineyards totalled 205,000 ha/506,000 acres by 2012 according to the oiv, and total wine production in 2013 was 12 million hl/317 million gal, nearly three-quarters of which was destined for export.

Answer 96

The vinifera vine, and deliberate cultivation of it for wine, was brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Cortés imported vine cuttings, or more probably seeds, directly from Spain to Mexico where the first successful American vintage was produced, but it is not clear whether the vines first cultivated in the mid 16th century at Cuzco in peru, the progenitors of the Chilean wine industry, came from Mexico or directly from Spain or Portugal. It is generally agreed, however, that Spanish settlers brought the vine to Chile some time in the 1550s, the vine probably arriving in the Central Valley with Juan Jufre and Diego Garcia de Cáceres in 1554. This was partly so that the early Spanish settlers could celebrate the eucharist with its produce. Specific grape varieties mentioned by the Jesuit priest Alonso Ovalle include Moscatel, Torontel, Albilho, Mollar, and ‘the common black grape’ (presumably related to the pais). Some early vineyards were ransacked by native Indians, notably in the far south of the country, but the capital Santiago has been associated with continuous wine production for more than four centuries. In the 17th century, Spain attempted to protect its export trade of wine to South America by banning new plantings of vineyards there, but with little success. Indeed in 1678, the Chilean governor recommended that not only should this ban be lifted but vineyards should be actively encouraged so that more farms, or haciendas, would be established. In the 18th century, Chile was known for the quantity and cheapness of wine it produced, much to the dismay of some Spanish wine producers. The vine varieties grown and winemaking techniques of the early 19th century were well documented and fairly primitive by modern standards, the wines commonly being sweetened with boiled, concentrated must, for example. It was Chile’s great good fortune that an energetic Frenchman, Claudio Gay, persuaded the Chilean government to set up the Quinta Normal, an experimental nursery for all manner of exotic botanical specimens, including European vines, as early as 1830. This meant that Chile had its own collection of V. vinifera cuttings safely banked in viticultural isolation before the onset of the world’s late-19th-century vineyard scourges of powdery mildew and phylloxera, although it was private enterprise which, as so often, provided the spur to the nation’s wine industry. Now independent of Spanish domination, rich Chileans began to travel and experience a wider world, which included the fine wines of Europe, markedly different from the rustic produce of Pais and Moscatel grapes. One of these was Silvestre Ochagavía Echazarreta, who in 1851 personally imported, along with a French winemaker, a range of those vine varieties regarded today as the most classic and internationally respected. These cuttings were to form the basis of Chile’s modern wine industry. A class of gentlemen farmers was emerging in Chile, some of whom had made their fortunes as a result of Chile’s rich mineral deposits. Owning a vine-growing country estate on the fertile land outside Santiago, preferably run by one of the many French refugees from phylloxera, was a sign of success in 19th century Chile. It was not long before Chile could boast the world’s only healthy wine industry, both viticulturally and financially, run effectively by ten rich families (several of them of Basque origin) and their descendants. As almost every other wine-producing country succumbed to the successive ravages of mildew and phylloxera, the Chilean wine industry enjoyed the rudest of health. The industry, still (as today) substantially in private hands, was so profitable, and per capita wine consumption so high, that it was increasingly energetically taxed and constricted as the 20th century wore on. Domestic demand for Chile’s basic wines declined, and wine prices plummeted in the 1970s and early 1980s. About half of Chile’s vineyards were pulled up, some of them in quite suitable locations. The unsettled nature of Chile’s politics and economics provided a natural brake on the progress of this unique industry, until the successful establishment of free market policies and the return of democracy in the 1980s stimulated growth in this potentially important aspect of the Chilean economy. Between 1987 and 1993, more than 10,000 ha/25,000 acres of vineyard were planted with international varieties, significant investments were made in new winemaking technology, and the focus of the wine industry switched completely from quantity for the domestic market to quality for export markets. Although Chile’s wine-related activity continues to be concentrated among just four companies—concha y toro, Santa Rita, Santa Carolina, and San Pedro—that account for approximately 80% of the country’s total production, investors from other fields of commerce have more recently entered the fray via the likes of Loma Larga, Matetic, and Casas del Bosque. And from the mid 1990s a number of smaller producers has at last been emerging. The creation of MOVI, the Movement of Independent Vintners, and Chanchos Deslenguados, a group of independent producers allied to the natural wine movement, have broken Chile’s historic wine oligopoly and have injected greater diversity into the Chilean wine scene. The same applies to the discovery of new zones. Until the 1980s, Chile’s finest wines (primarily Cabernet Sauvignon) came from sectors close to the Andean Piedmont in the Maipo Valley, while the simple, keenly priced varietal wines for which Chile was best known abroad were grown on the fertile, well-irrigated lands of Chile’s Central Valley between the Andes and the Coastal Range. The coastal Casablanca Valley established in 1982 has been followed by a series of newer, generally cooler wine zones. The San Antonio and Limarí Valleys in the latter half of the 1990s are the most obvious examples of more daring viticulture in less reliable climates and more extreme conditions. Projects that bear particular mention include the Flaño family’s Alcohuaz winery at 2,000 m/6,652 feet elevation in the Elqui Valley, guided by consulting winemaker Marcelo Retamal of De Martino. For white wines Casa Marín were trailblazers in Lo Abarca, just 4 km/2.5 miles from the cold Pacific Ocean in the San Antonio Valley. These projects would have been unthinkable in Chile even quite recently.

Answer 97

Chile extends nearly 4,300 km/2,670 miles north-south. It is also very narrow (at its narrowest it is barely 95 km/59 miles wide). Squeezed between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes (80% of Chile is mountainous), land suitable for viticulture is limited, although quite varied. In 2012, a total of 128,637 ha/317,800 acres were planted with grapevines, nearly 74% dedicated to red wine grapes. The most widely planted variety was Cabernet Sauvignon with a total of 41,500 ha/102,500 acres, followed by Sauvignon Blanc planted on 14,131 ha/34,920 acres. The two northernmost regions, Atacama and, especially, Coquimbo, specialize in the production of Chile’s own controlled appellation grape spirit pisco, to which nearly 7,700 ha of vineyards were dedicated in the early 2010s. But early examples of wines grown well north of the capital Santiago, especially from Limarí and Elqui, swelled the total area of northern vineyards devoted to wine production to 3,600 ha. Although there are experimental vineyards throughout the country (from latitude 23 °S in the north to 46 °S in the extreme south), the great majority of Chilean wine is produced between the latitudes of 32 and 38 degrees. A northern hemisphere counterpart of these latitudes would be North Africa and southern Spain, but in Chile temperatures are considerably mitigated by the influence of the Pacific and its cold Humboldt current. Chilean wine producers describe their climate as somewhere between that of California’s napa Valley and that of Bordeaux. Although the coastal areas are being energetically developed, most of Chile’s wine has traditionally come from the Central Valley, a 1,000-km-long plateau which reaches as far south as Puerto Montt. The Central Valley is separated from the Pacific to the west by a relatively low coastal range whose peaks reach 300 to 800 m (1,000–2,600 ft) and is separated from Argentina’s Mendoza wine region to the east by the Andes, which can reach elevations of 6,000 m here. Vines will grow up to an elevation of 600 m on the western slopes of the Central Valley, and 1,000 m on the sunnier eastern slopes of the valley on the foothills of the Andes. The Central Valley is dissected by rivers which, during the growing season, carry torrents of melted snow from the Andes to the Pacific: irrigation made easy. Although there are distinct variations between individual regions and even subregions (see below), the climate in the Central Valley is generally mediterranean, with warm, dry summers, and rainfall, averaging between 300 and 800 mm (12–31 in) a year, restricted to the winter, thanks to the effect of the Pacific high-pressure area. Rainfall in the Central Valley tends to increase both in the south and east, on the slopes of the Andes. On the western edge of the valley, summer temperatures average 15 to 18 °C (59–64 °F) and may rise to 30 °C/86 °F, with clear skies, strong sunlight, and relatively low humidity of just 55 to 60%. On the eastern edge of the valley, however, under the influence of cold air drainage from the Andes at night, there is much greater temperature variability resulting in particularly good levels of acidity and colour in grapes. Southern regions such as Bío-Bío and Malleco are also being developed for serious wine production. In carefully selected sites in places such as Mulchén and Traiguén, vines can yield good white wines, although frost and excessive rain may prejudice quality south of Temuco. Meanwhile traditional and historic zones such as Itata have recently been rediscovered by wineries from the central zone such as De Martino and Miguel Torres. Old Cinsault and Moscatel de Alejandría vines planted there are paying dividends.

Answer 98

Traditionally, Chile’s wine regions were divided from north to south following administrative and provincial divisions rather than according to likely terroir effects. This system, common in many young wine regions, is slowly being modified. A first and very preliminary step was the 2013 geographical divisions of the wine valleys into Andes, Entre Cordilleras (between mountain ranges), and Costa (coastal). This transversal division from east to west aims to reflect the impact of the effects of the Andes as well as the Pacific—both cooling influences—in contrast to the valleys, where the climate tends to be warmer. This is a very general division. Dozens of exceptions are already evident, but this is at least a first step towards recognizing the influence of Chile’s mountainous topography and the Pacific Ocean on the character of its wines. From north to south the main wine regions, with their most significant subregions, are (see map): Coquimbo: Elqui, Limarí Aconcagua: Aconcagua, Casablanca, San Antonio (including Leyda) Central Valley: Maipo (including Santiago, Talagante, Pirque, Puente Alto, Isla de Maipo, Buin), Rapel (including Cachapoal, Colchagua), Curicó (including Teno, Lontué), Maule (including Talca, San Clemente, San Javier, Parral, Linares, Cauquenes) Southern region: Itata, Bío-Bío, Malleco In general, Chile’s vineyards are planted on flat, fertile land where water is readily available either naturally or through irrigation, so that vine root systems are relatively shallow. Alluvial soils predominate in Aconcagua and are also present to the south in Maipo, although here there are loams and occasionally clay soils too. In both the Maipo region and the Cachapoal district of northern Rapel, there are mixtures of loam, clay, and sand, some of which may be subject to erosion on slopes. Soils are similar in southern Rapel and Maule while volcanic soils extend from south of Curicó to the Bío-Bío region, interrupted only by sand and sandy loam around Linares. Some parts of Cachapoal, Colchagua, and the Southern region suffer from relatively poor drainage, can be quite swampy, and may need no irrigation.

Answer 99

Coquimbo, 500 km north of the capital Santiago primarily comprises the Limarí and Elqui Valleys (as well as the little-developed Choapa Valley) and was historically focused on table grapes and pisco. There is intense sunlight throughout the year and less than 100 mm of annual rainfall. Although some fine wines have emerged, water shortages are threatening the region’s survival. It was as recently as the mid 1990s that Viña Francisco de Aguirre started to produce exciting table wines in the Limarí Valley, 20 km from the Pacific coast where the likes of Tamaya and Tabalí had established themselves by the early 2000s. The cooling ocean influence plays an important part in delaying ripening in both Limarí and Elqui Valleys. The soils are rocky and clay, with a strong presence of alluvial stones near the rivers. The combination of clay and limestone, however, along with the proximity of the ocean, has yielded the best results in this northern zone. Tabalí and Tamaya Chardonnays and some Tamaya Pinot Noirs have been particularly impressive, while Falernia’s Sauvignon Blanc from Elqui and some cool climate reds such as Syrah and Carmenère are also promising.

Answer 100

Named after the river which bisects it, Aconcagua is made up of three very distinct zones. The interior of Aconcagua is one of Chile’s hottest, driest wine regions. In the summer, clouds are rarely seen, and temperatures are often above 30 °C/86 °F. Soils are mainly alluvial and the region produces some good red wines. Errázuriz and von Siebenthal are two of the few important wine exporters to have their base here, at Panquehue in the much gentler intermediate region, cooled by coastal breezes. This is home to the traditional Aconcagua vineyards responsible for such Chilean classics as Don Maximiano from Viña Errázuriz and their Seña grown closer to the coast. A third area—also the responsibility of Errázuriz—is on the hillsides of the coastal range in Manzanar, strongly influenced by cold breezes off the Pacific Ocean. With clay and stony soils and gently rolling hills, this new area is part of the logical westward expansion taking place in several Chilean valleys. The climate and soils in the Aconcagua Costa zone are similar to those in Leyda and initial results with Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir showed similar exciting potential.

Answer 101

Although both zones are coastal and, politically speaking, belong to the Aconcagua Valley, Casablanca and San Antonio—the two largest sources of cold-climate whites in Chile—are different in various aspects. Casablanca’s vineyards are cooled to winkler Region I by cool morning fogs, the result of the Pacific’s icy Humboldt current (which has a similar effect thousands of miles up the coast in California). Frequent cloud slows ripening and reduces the average number of clear days per year to 180, as opposed to between 240 and 300 in the interior. Spring frosts are a real hazard here but specialist grape growers and most of the big companies have planted varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir extensively since the region’s beginnings in the early 1980s. Casablanca runs from east to west, which means it is a transversal valley in which the easternmost zones—those furthest from oceanic influence—are warmer. There can be more than a month’s difference in harvest dates between eastern Casablanca (also known as Upper or Alto Casablanca) and the western zone (Lower or Bajo Casablanca). Soils vary enormously although they generally tend to be sandy in Alto Casablanca and are increasingly granitic with a higher clay content with proximity to the coast. Planting began in San Antonio in the late 1990s. Climate, soils, and topography are quite similar to Bajo Casablanca. The landscape typically features rolling hills, clay and granitic soils and, like nearly all of Chile’s coastline, is cooled by coastal breezes. San Antonio Valley runs north to south, parallel to the coast, and has zones that are just a few km from the ocean, although the average direct distance between San Antonio’s vineyards and the ocean is 15 km. Sauvignon Blanc is the valley’s flagship variety, but some promising Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and sparkling wine is also made.

Answer 102

The most famous wine region in Chile just south of the capital Santiago is not one of the largest. In 2012, some 12,971 ha/32,052 acres of vines were recorded, with a clear predominance of red over white grapes. Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay were the most widely planted, although Merlot, Carmenère, and Sauvignon Blanc are also important. Annual rainfall averages just 300 mm/12 in a year, most of it falling in the winter. irrigation is common, although the water can be quite high in salt around the Maipo river from which the region takes its name. potassium levels tend to be low throughout the region. Maipo is famous for producing Chile’s most lauded Cabernet Sauvignon and some producers such as William Fèvre have begun planting up in the Andes as high as 1,000 m elevation with encouraging preliminary results.

Answer 103

About 150 km south of Santiago, Rapel had more than 42,000 ha/103,000 acres of vineyards in 2012 and is divided into two subzones—Cachapoal to the north and Colchagua to the south. Both are transversal valleys and run from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean. This results in pronounced differences in the wines (primarily reds) produced in the two subvalleys, depending on their proximity to the cooling influence of the Andes (Alto Cachapoal and Alto Colchagua). Some of Chile’s finest Cabernet Sauvignons come from the Andean piedmont in Rapel. Significant individual zones have already been identified within them. Apalta within Colchagua, for example, has a reputation for fine Merlot, Carmenère, and Syrah won, to a large extent by the French-owned winery Casa Lapostolle and by Viña Montes. Cabernet Sauvignon, Carmenère, and Merlot are the most planted grape varieties, and the region has a particularly good reputation for full-flavoured red wines. Los Vascos winery, in which Ch lafite-Rothschild has an important stake, is at Peralillo. Large wineries such as Santa Emiliana, Santa Rita, Undurraga, and the smaller Viña Montes operation all made considerable vineyard investments in Colchagua in the 1990s. The latest trend in Rapel, specifically in Colchagua, has been to take maximum advantage of its transversal characteristics by exploiting coastal zones such as Lolol and especially Paredones (just 15 km/9.3 miles from the Pacific) whose Pinot Noir and Sauvignon Blanc rival those of Casablanca and San Antonio for quality and freshness.

Answer 104

Formed by the subregions Lontué and Teno, Curicó Valley was put on the international map when Miguel torres arrived there in 1979. According to 2013 statistics, the valley has 24,000 ha/59,000 acres planted. Curicó has basically two different mesoclimates. Towards the east, around Molina and north of the Claro river, the climate is cooler thanks to the breezes from the Andes. To the west, the coastal range minimizes the ocean influence and the climate is warmer, sometimes notably hot and dry. Even though the valley does not have any particular speciality such as Cabernet Sauvignon in Maipo or Sauvignon Blanc in Casablanca, the wide range of varieties planted reach a good general level of quality. The most recognized Curicó wineries, apart from Torres, are San Pedro, Valdivieso, Aresti, and Los Robles co-operative.

Answer 105

Important wine region in Chile which includes the subregions of Talca, San Clemente, San Javier, Parral, Linares, and Cauquenes. According to official records, Maule’s total area of wine grapevines has remained static at 30,250 ha/74,7200 acres for years (although there are some doubts about the efficiency of filing vineyard statistics in this region of smallholders). Well to the south of Santiago, this is one of Chile’s cooler and cloudier regions, thanks to the Pacific influence, although it is hotter and drier than Bío-Bío to the south. The rustic pais vine variety used to dominate plantings, especially in the rain-fed areas, but Cabernet Sauvignon has been gaining ground. Vineyards in the rain-fed western areas often suffer from serious deficiencies of nutrients, especially nitrogen and to a lesser extent potassium. Thanks to new investment and viticultural practices, Maule is no longer seen solely as a source of bulk wine. Maule also has more carignan planted than any other valley, and the variety is now undergoing a revival among Chilean producers. The grapes from old vines in dry-farmed coastal zones provide the raw material for the VIGNO (Vignadores del Carignan/Carignan Vintners) group, an association that aims to promote this long-forgotten variety. The results have been spectacular.

Answer 106

The vineyards of southern Chile had fallen to 8,800 ha/21,750 acres by 2013, split quite evenly between red and white grapes. Formed by Itata, Bío-Bío, and the new Malleco subregion, this region is more open than Maipo and Rapel, lacking the protection of a high coastal range, so that rainfall is higher and average temperature and sunshine hours are lower. By far the most common vine variety is the humble pais, planted on a total of 2,464 ha/6,088 acres and now the object of a strong revival among small producers such as the French winemaker Louis Antoine Luyt (a pioneer in this endeavour), but also by large wineries such as Concha y Toro and VIA Wines. With more than 400 ha/988 acres planted, Cinsault is the region’s latest rising star, especially in the dry-farmed zones of Itata, where it now produces simple, refreshing reds. The most widely planted white wine grape is Moscatel de Alejandría on about 3,000 ha/7,413 acres. Little by little, it is being taken more seriously by wineries such as De Martino who vinify it carefully with fine results. Research in the early 1990s in the Chillán area, however, suggested that, with drip irrigation and appropriate training systems such as the lyre, some good-quality wine from the best-known international varieties could be made here. The proof of that lies in the Mulchén and Negrete areas where wineries such as Cono Sur and Gracia are producing crisp Riesling and ripe Pinot Noir. The embryonic Malleco area showed its mettle with excellent Chardonnay and Pinot Noir made by producers such as Aquitania, William Fèvre, and Alto Las Gredas.

Answer 107

Irrigation is essential in nearly half of all Chilean vineyards and, as in Argentina, is made possible by the melting snows of the Andes, diverted along a series of canals and channels as well as through the use of deep wells that exploit groundwater. This method is particularly important in coastal zones far from the Andes such as Casablanca. drip irrigation was introduced only in the early 1990s. As a result of this ready and plentiful water supply, most vineyards have good access to water during the growing season. The irrigated vineyards are mainly in the north of the Central Valley, in the interior of the Aconcagua, Maipo, Rapel, Maule, and Curicó regions. On the slopes of the coastal range in the west of southern regions, rainfall is often sufficient, as it is in most of the Southern region. fertilizers are widely employed, but their use is regulated to avoid an excess of vigour. Drip irrigation allows fertigation in some of the more viticulturally developed areas. Average yields in Chile are about 70 hl/ha (4 tons/acre). Over-irrigated, high-yielding vines can experience difficulties in ripening. This is particularly true of varieties which ripen relatively late, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chile’s speciality carmenère, or of high training systems. There is a predictably rich cultural diversity of training and trellis systems in Chile. Some vines, particularly those dedicated to table grapes, are trained in variations on the tendone system in the high, arbour-like parrón trellis which encourages shade (like the parral of argentina). The standard Spanish practice of growing unstaked vines as free-standing bushes, trained into a gobelet shape, has been common since the Spanish conquest but is today usually restricted to the País vine, notably in the south. The Bordeaux post-phylloxera immigrants introduced row trellising to Chile at the end of the 19th century and this has evolved in two distinct ways. Low, narrow rows of vines that are traditional in Europe tend to be double guyot pruned or spur cordons, depending on variety, and used mainly to produce better-quality wines. More common for basic wine production are more widely spaced vines (sometimes with cross-pieces, described as Californian), which permit the increasingly common phenomenon of vineyard mechanization. In the 1990s, most new plantings were in long narrow rows between 2 and 2.5 m (6.5–8 ft) apart, with vines planted 1.2 to 1.5 m apart. Australian canopy management techniques were introduced in some vineyards in the early 1990s. harvest of wine grapes begins at the end of February for such early-maturing varieties as Chardonnay, continues through to the end of April for Cabernet Sauvignon, and can last well into May for Carmenère. No Chilean vine-grower feels he needs to study rootstocks since the country is free of phylloxera and the consequent need for grafting. Some field grafting has been undertaken, however, in the rush to increase the proportion of fashionable grape varieties planted. And such is the prevalence of nematodes in Chilean vineyards, because of V. vinifera’s low resistance to them relative to American vine species, that some authorities suggest using American rootstocks to combat this problem. Chile’s vines are by no means free of virus diseases. Chile may be famously free of phylloxera, but powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot are annual and potentially extremely costly vine diseases, with verticillium wilt another serious vine health hazard. downy mildew infections occurred in some areas for the first time during the heavily el niño-influenced 1997–8 growing season. The absence of summer rains means that spraying is generally much less frequent than in many other wine regions, however. organic viticulture has been becoming more prevalent.

Answer 108

Vine Identification arrived relatively late in Chile. Conscious of its unique status as a wine-producing country as yet unravaged by phylloxera, Chile imposes a particularly strict quarantine on imported plant material, which has helped to maintain certain aspects of its viticultural isolation. The quality and identity of the vines grown was the most dramatic example of this. The majority of the vines called Sauvignon by the Chileans, for example, were almost certainly Sauvignon Vert, sauvignonasse (or Friulano) and occasionally Sauvignon Gris, rather than the more familiar Sauvignon Blanc. Only a small but increasing proportion of Sauvignon Blanc, almost exclusively based on clones developed in California, had been planted by the early 1990s and even by the mid 2000s official statistics claiming 7,400 ha/18,300 acres of Sauvignon Blanc and just 200 ha of Sauvignon Vert probably did not reflect the true proportions of these two varieties. Thanks to the new plantations and more fastidious differentiation between Sauvignons Blanc and Vert, official statistics for 2012 suggest there are 14,131 ha/34,918 acres of Sauvignon Blanc versus just 792 ha/1,957 acres of Sauvignon Vert. Similarly, vines called Merlot are usually in fact a mixture, and sometimes a field blend, of Merlot and the old Bordeaux variety carmenère, first identified as such in Chile in 1994. The vine identification required to distinguish Merlot from Carmenère is continuing and since the mid 1990s the word Carmenère has increasingly appeared on wine labels both as a varietal and, perhaps more suitably, an ingredient in a blend. Although Chile is indubitably the Bordeaux of the southern hemisphere, for long it lacked a wine style to call its own but has dragooned Carmenère to be its answer to Argentina’s Malbec, or Uruguay’s Tannat. Until the 1990s, the most commonly planted grape variety was the dark-skinned pais, identical to the criolla chica of Argentina and the mission of California, a direct descendant of vine cuttings imported by the Spanish colonists. Official statistics recorded just under 15,000 ha/37,050 acres of Pais in 2003, more or less the same as in 1997 but half the area planted with the variety in the 1980s. Although the variety is currently undergoing a revival, the area planted has continued to decline. By 2012 there were just 7,247 ha/17,907 acres planted, and the great majority are planted in the southern Maule and Bío-Bío regions. The same survey of 2012 found nearly 41,000 ha/101,270 acres of Cabernet Sauvignon, the most important variety in Chile by quite a margin (almost three times as much as seven years previously), 14,131 ha/34,904 acres of Sauvignon Blanc, 11,649 ha/28,773 acres of ‘Merlot’ (all of 10,418 ha/25,732 acres of which had already been identified as Carmenère), more than 10,570 ha of Chardonnay, and just over 3,320 ha of muscat of alexandria, about half of the total ten years before. The early years of this century saw a dramatic increase in plantings of Syrah, which totalled 7,744 by 2012, and Pinot Noir with a total of 4,012 ha (60% as much as is planted on the côte d’or). Such new plant material as is allowed in has come mainly from davis, but European investors such as Miguel Torres, a couple from Chablis, and Ch Lafite-Rothschild import their own cuttings directly from Europe, under strict quarantine regulations.

Answer 109

Chile has undergone possibly the most dramatic technological revolution in the wine world. Wineries were for decades underfunded as the domestic market could be satisfied with often oxidized white wines and faded reds made with the most traditional of equipment. All wines were made from grapes trucked, often in very high temperatures with scant regard for oxidation, to wineries equipped with little in the way of temperature control, and made exclusively in vats made either of cement or the coarse local raulí, or evergreen beech, wood, usually coopered many decades previously. In the late 1980s, however, the wine industry made a commitment to the long-term future of Chile as a wine exporter and began to invest in the equipment necessary for that goal. Outside investors assisted the influx of both equipment and expertise, and since then the wineries of Chile were invaded, at a pace usually determined by the enterprise’s size and cash flow, by pneumatic presses, oak barrels, stainless steel, and modern filters. Often one of the most necessary improvements was one of the technically least complicated: the provision of cool storage facilities. Today Chile’s oenologists are some of the world’s finest.

Answer 110

Most of the big wine-exporting companies, many of them run by descendants of the wine dynasties of the mid 19th century, have their headquarters in Santiago or nearby in the Maipo region. The likes of concha y toro, Santa Rita, Santa Carolina, and San Pedro own several wineries and many different vineyards, although it is also the norm to buy grapes from a wide range of growers. Estate wineries such as the historic Cousiño Macul, Los Vascos, Montes, or Portal del Alto, for which practically all grapes used are grown by the owner/winemakers, are increasing in number. Foreign investment has come from kendall jackson (mondavi), France (Chx mouton rothschild and Lafite-rothschild and many others), Spain (torres), presumably attracted by the relatively low cost of land, vineyard establishment, and running costs in Chile, although this is offset by the need to import all sophisticated equipment and cooperage. In the mid 1990s, however, some of the larger Chilean wine companies invested in Argentina, tempted by lower land costs across the Andes. Kaiken (Viña Montes) and Trivento (Concha y Toro) are two obvious examples. Although the Chilean wine scene continues to be dominated by large corporations that have ready access to enormous expanses of vineyards and that produce millions of bottles, producers’ groups such as MOVI (Movimiento de Viñateros Independientes) and Chanchos Deslenguados have shown that there is room for much more artisanal projects with their own styles and philosophies. Some of Chile’s most exciting wines today come from members of these organizations.

Answer 111

Wines exported from Chile are, typically, extremely fruity and clean but did not until the early 1990s display the structure which can be imposed only by low yields and/or barrel maturation. Yields are still relatively high, although there are some plots of very old vines which produce concentrated wine. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot–Carmenère, and Cabernet blends dominate Chile’s red wine exports and can provide extremely good-value wines for drinking within two or three years, although an increasing proportion of wine capable of bottle ageing has been produced. The new generation of white wines has been clean and well made and it is now possible to find well-defined, increasingly complex Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc from cooler areas such as Casablanca and San Antonio. Pink and sweet wines are certainly made and Valdivieso was the first to make sparkling wines using traditional method techniques, as early as 1879. Table grapes may be vinified and sold as wine in Chile and the grape varieties Sultana and Ribier, or Alphonse Lavallé, are most commonly used for this purpose. Most of this wine is sold locally, or is exported in bulk. Wine made from a table grape variety sold locally should be labelled as such. Chile overtook Australia as the world’s fourth most important wine exporter in 2013, with prices if not the populace benefiting from very much lower labour costs.

Answer 112

Subsequently Ch Lafite-Rothschild, first growth in the médoc region of bordeaux. The vineyard, to the north of the small town of pauillac and adjoining Ch mouton rothschild, was probably planted in the first third of the 17th century. Inherited in 1716 by the ségurs, who also owned Ch latour, it was sold in 1784 to Pierre de Pichard, an extremely rich president of the Bordeaux Parlement who perished on the scaffold. The estate was confiscated and sold as public property in 1797 to a Dutch consortium which in 1803 resold it to a Dutch grain merchant and supplier to Napoleon’s armies, Ignace-Joseph Vanlerberghe. When he fell on hard times, he resold it to his former wife in order to avoid its falling into a creditor’s hands. Perhaps for the same reason, or to avoid splitting it up under French inheritance laws, in 1821 she apparently sold it to a London banker, Sir Samuel Scott, for 1 million francs. He and then his son were the nominal owners for over 40 years. But when the real proprietor Aimé Vanlerberghe died without issue in 1866, the family decided to sell it and pay the fines owed because of the concealment. In 1868, after a stiff contest with a Bordeaux syndicate, it was knocked down to Baron James de rothschild of the Paris bank, for 4.4 million francs, including part of the Carruades vineyard. Baron James died in the same year and the château has remained in the family ever since. Baron Eric de Rothschild took over direction of the property from his uncle Baron Élie in 1974. In the famous 1855 classification, Lafite was placed first of the premiers crus, although there is controversy as to whether the order was alphabetical or by rank. Yet, as Christie’s auctions in the 1960s and 1970s of 19th century British country mansion cellars showed, in Britain Lafite was nearly always the favoured first growth. The château itself is a 16th century manor. The vineyard, one of the largest in the Haut-Médoc, had grown to 112 ha/276 acres by 2014: 72% Cabernet Sauvignon, 25% Merlot, 2% Cabernet Franc, and 1% Petit Verdot. Annual production has been reduced to about 36,000 cases, of which up to 60% may be the second wine, called Carruades de Lafite but not restricted to wine produced on the plateau in the vineyard known as Les Carruades. See rothschilds and wine for other wine investments made by the owners of Ch Lafite.

Answer 113

The Rothschilds first entered the world of wine in 1853 when Baron Nathaniel (1812–70), grandson of Mayer Amschel and a member of the English branch of the family, bought Brane Mouton and renamed it Ch mouton rothschild. This was common practice among more important château owners. It was a buyer's market in Bordeaux vineyards then devastated by oidium, or powdery mildew, and the Rothschild purchase was viewed more as a property transaction than as the acquisition of a distinguished vineyard. When the important 1855 classification placed Ch Mouton Rothschild top of the second growths, however, the Rothschilds were particularly exercised by what they regarded as its unfairly low placing. Nathaniel was succeeded by his son Baron James (1844–81) and then Baron Henri (1872–1947), who was more interested in literature than wine, and James's widow was responsible for Mouton until the arrival of Henri's younger son Philippe (1902–88) in 1922. Baron Philippe de Rothschild was to prove one of the most influential forces in the wine business of Bordeaux and beyond. Not only did he acquire two neighbouring Pauillac fifth growth châteaux—Mouton d’Armailhacq (named at various stages Mouton-Baron-Philippe, Mouton-Baronne-Philippe, and, since the late 1980s, d’Armailhac) in 1933 and Clerc Milon in 1970—he established the importance of château bottling, established mouton cadet as one of the world's most successful wine brands and an important négociant business in the Médoc, astutely developed the concept (and value) of artists’ labels, established the finest collection of wine-related works of art in the world, and in 1979 initiated Opus One, the world's first high profile joint venture with Robert mondavi of California. In 1996 a joint venture with Concha y Toro of chile was created to produce the ambitiously priced Cabernet blend Almaviva. Baron Philippe was succeeded at Mouton by his daughter Philippine (1933–2014). Under her leadership, Domaine de Baron’arques, a red limoux AOC, was bought with her two sons in 1998. At the same time, Baron Philippe de Rothschild S.A. diversified into varietal wines from the languedoc. Just next door to Mouton, Ch lafite was bought by Baron James of the French family in 1868 in the face of local competition. He died a few months later but is said to have visited the property briefly in the spring of that year. His son Edmond (1845–1934) was to sow, and indeed provide, the seeds for the establishment of the israeli wine industry by making a vast donation in 1882. James's great-grandson Élie (1917–2007) was the family member who eventually took charge of Lafite, subsequently Lafite-Rothschild, until 1974 when his nephew Eric (1940– ) became the château's head. In 1962, the fourth growth pauillac Ch Duhart-Milon was acquired. In 1984, the leading sauternes property Ch Rieussec was also purchased, L’Évangile in pomerol being added in 1990. Since then joint ventures have been established in Los Vascos in chile in 1988, Ch d’Aussières in Corbières, Quinta do Carmo in Portugal (sold to their partners in 2007), Caro with Catena in Argentina, and, since 2008, a new estate in china's Shandong region. The Lafite Rothschilds were on the point of expanding their California interests but sold Chalone to an acquisitive diageo in 2004. In 1973 Baron Edmond (1926–97), one of the family partners in Lafite but engaged in many other affairs, bought the semi-derelict Ch Clarke of listrac and in 1977–8 built a very large new cuvier and chai. In 1979, he added Ch Malmaison in the adjoining commune of moulis, which was also treated to major renovation, as well as acquiring two more non-classified châteaux in the Médoc. Since 1998, this branch of the Rothschild family have had a joint venture with Anton Rupert of South Africa, Rupert & Rothschild. In 2002, Baron Edmond’s son Baron Benjamin created a joint venture with Laurent Dassault in Mendoza, Argentina. In 2003, he bought Ch des Laurets, straddling Puisseguin- and Montagne-St-Émilion. In 2013, two new ventures were developed, one in Marlborough, New Zealand and a joint venture with vega sicilia in Rioja, Spain. In 1994, the English financier Lord (Jacob) Rothschild (1936– ) opened a wine museum and cellar for the display and sale of Rothschild wines at Waddesdon Manor just north of London.

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