chp 9-13 (new material) Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
what is infinite generativity?
A
The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
2
Q
what is a phoneme?
A
the basic unit of sound in a
language; the smallest unit of sound that affects meaning.
3
Q
what is a morpheme?
A
A morpheme is a word or a part of a word that cannot
be broken into smaller meaningful parts. ex: tree
4
Q
what is syntax?
A
Involves the way words are combined to form
acceptable phrases and sentences.
• The term syntax is often used interchangeably
with the term grammar.
5
Q
what is semantics?
A
• Refers to the meaning of words and sentences.
6
Q
define 2 word utterances
A
By the time children are 18 to 24 mos of age, they usually utter two-word utterances.
• To convey meaning with just two words, the child relies heavily on gesture, tone, and context. ex: want milk
7
Q
define telegraphic speech
A
is the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives. ex: where ball
8
Q
what is a common mistake preschool aged children make with language?
A
Children overgeneralize morphological rules, applying them to words that do not follow the rules as when a preschool child say “foots” instead of “feet” or “goed” instead of “went.”
9
Q
define fast mapping
A
children’s ability to make an initial connection between a word and its referent after only limited exposure to the word
• Exposure to words on multiple occasions over several days results in more successful word learning than the same number of exposures in a single day
• Children benefit from hearing the words mature speakers use to test and revise their word-referent connections
10
Q
what are the areas of the brain predisposed to be used for language
A
Broca’s area - speech production and grammatical processing
• Wernicke’s area - language comprehension
11
Q
what was chomsky’s language theory (LAD)
A
proposed that humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
• Chomsky said that children are born into the world with a language acquisition device (LAD)
• A biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
• LAD is a theoretical construct, not a physical part of the brain.
12
Q
what role does evolution/culture have in emotions?
A
biological evolution has endowed human beings to be emotional, but culture and relationships with others provide diversity in emotional experiences.
13
Q
what is the functionalist view of emotion?
A
Functionalist view emotions as relational rather than strictly internal, intrapsychic phenomena
Emotions are linked with an individual’s goals in a variety of ways
The specific nature of the goal can affect the experience of a given emotion.
14
Q
what is the developmentalist view of emotion?
A
Developmentalists view emotions as the result of individuals’ attempts to adapt to specific contextual demands
A child’s emotional responses cannot be separated from the situations in which they are evoked.
In many instances, emotions are elicited in interpersonal contexts.
15
Q
explain the primary emotions that develop in infancy
A
Appear in the first six months of the human infant’s
development.
Include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and
disgust.
16
Q
explain “self conscious” emotions
A
Require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a
sense of “me.”
Self-conscious emotions include jealousy, empathy,
embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt
Occurs for the first time at some point in the second half
of the first year through the second year.
17
Q
What is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating?
A
crying
18
Q
what are the 3 types of cries babies use to communicate?
A
Basic cry - A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, then a brief rest before the next cry.
Anger cry - A variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords.
Pain cry - A sudden, long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus.
19
Q
smiling is a key social sign, what are the 2 types of smiling?
A
Reflexive smile - A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It appears during the month after birth, usually during sleep.
Social smile - A smile in response to an external stimulus, typically in response to a face. Occurs as early as 4 to 6 weeks of age
20
Q
when does stranger anxiety first appear in infants?
A
First appears at about 6 months of age as wary reactions, and by 9 months is more intense. Effected by behavior of stranger and feeling of security
21
Q
define seperation protest
A
Crying when the caregiver leaves.
Peaks at about 15 months
22
Q
what is an important change that occurs in early childhood relating to emotion?
A
An important change in emotional development in early childhood is an increased understanding of emotion.
Young children increasingly understand that certain situations are likely to evoke particular emotions, facial expressions indicate specific emotions, and emotions affect behaviour and emotions can be used to influence others’ emotions
Between 2 and 4 years of age, children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions. They are also learning about the causes and consequences of feelings
23
Q
at what age are children better able to reflect on emotions?
A
When they are 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions.
By 5 years of age, most children can accurately determine emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress
24
Q
regulating emotions is significant for children, parents play a role in this, explain the 2 types of parents in regards to this
A
Emotion-coaching parents:
Interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, Use more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing
parents
Emotion-dismissing parents: view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.
25
what are the recommendations for dealing with children who have experienced stress or trauma?
Reassure children (numerous times, if necessary) of their safety/security.
Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them.
Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings, reassuring them that such feelings are normal after a stressful event.
Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma – by limiting discussion of the event in front of the children.
Help children make sense of what happened, keeping in mind that children may misunderstand what took place.
26
What are Chess and Thomas’ Classification
Identified three basic types, or clusters, of
temperament:
Easy child - Generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.
Difficult child - Reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.
Slow-to-warm-up child - Has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
27
what is Kagan’s Behavioural Inhibition
Another way of classifying temperament focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extraverted, bold child
Jerome Kagan regards shyness with strangers (peers or adults) as one feature of a broad temperament category called inhibition to the unfamiliar.
Can be improved with training
28
Mary Rothbart and John Bates (2006) argue that that three broad dimensions best represent what researchers have found to characterize the structure of temperament:, what are they
Extraversion/surgency – positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, sensation seeking
Negative affectivity – fear, frustration, sadness, discomfort
Effortful control (self-regulation) – attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, low-intensity pleasure
29
what should you never do in regards to children and classifying temperament?
An important point about temperament classifications is that children should not be pigeon-holed as having only one temperament dimension, such as “difficult” or “negative affectivity.”
30
What is heredity’s role in the biological foundations of temperament?
Twin and adoption studies suggest that heredity has a moderate influence on differences in temperament within a group of people
The contemporary view is that temperament is a biologically based but evolving aspect of behaviour; it evolves as the child’s experiences are incorporated into a network of self-perceptions and behavioural preferences that characterize the child’s personality
31
define social referencing
The term used to describe “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation.
infants become better at social referencing at age 2
32
define joint attention
overtly focused by two or more people on the same object, person, or action at the same time, with each being aware of the other's interest. Joint attention is an important developmental tool.
33
define attachment
A close emotional bond between two people.
34
list the 3 theories of attachment
Freud - Oral satisfaction. Harlow - Contact comfort.
| Erikson - Physical comfort and sensitivity. (key to establish trust)
35
explain Bowlby's theory of attachment
Stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of life and the responsiveness of the caregiver.
Points out that both infants and their primary caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments.
Argues that the newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment behaviour.
36
Bowlby Four phases of Attachment:
Phase 1: From birth to 2 months.
Infants instinctively direct their attachment to human
figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant.
Phase 2: From 2 to 7 months.
Attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually
the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people.
Phase 3: From 7 to 24 months.
Specific attachments develop.
With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek
contact with regular caregivers, such as the mother or father.
Phase 4: From 24 months on.
Children become aware of others’ feelings, goals, and
plans and begin to take these into account in forming their own actions.
37
what are the attachment styles?
Securely attached - Babies use the caregiver as a
secure base from which to explore the environment. Insecure avoidant - Babies show insecurity by avoiding
the mother.
Insecure resistant - Babies often cling to the caregiver,
then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away.
Insecure disorganized - Babies are disorganized and disoriented.
38
what are the 3 factors that influence effects of child care?
Number of child care arrangements.
• Quantity of (time spent in) child care.
• Quality of program.
39
high quality child care has the following
Frequent, positive interactions (smiling, holding, speaking at child’s level); responding properly to child; encouraging child to talk about experiences, feelings, ideas
A safe environment.
Access to age-appropriate toys.
Participation in a variety of age-appropriate activities.
Low caregiver-child ratio that allows caregivers to spend considerable time with children on an individual basis.
40
define self understanding
A child’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of the child’s self-conceptions.
41
when does self awareness emerge
Self-awareness and the awareness of others emerge together during the mid-to-latter part of 2nd yr.
42
One strategy to test infants' visual self-recognition is the use of a mirror technique, explain
An infant's mother first puts a dot of rouge on the infant's nose.
▪Then an observer watches to see how often the infant touches its nose.
▪Next, the infant is placed in front of a mirror, and observers detect whether nose touching increases.
▪Increased touching indicates that the infant realizes that it is the self in the mirror but that something is not right since the real self does not have a dot of rouge on it.
43
Five main characteristics of self-understanding in early childhood: (self-identity)
Confusion of self, mind, and body. - Most young children
conceiveoftheselfaspartofthe body,whichusuallymeansthe head. For them, the self can be described along many material dimensions, such as size, shape, and colour.
2. Concrete descriptions - Preschool children mainly think of themselves and define themselves in concrete terms. At about 4 to 5 yrs, as children hear others use psychological trait and emotion terms, they begin to include these in their own self- descriptions.
3. Physical descriptions - Young children also distinguish themselves from others through many physical and material attributes.
4. Active descriptions - A central component of the self in early childhood. For example, preschool children often describe themselves in terms of activities such as play.
5. Unrealistic positive overestimations – Self evaluations during early childhood are often unrealistically positive and represent an overestimation of personal attributes
44
what are the developmental changes in middle/late childhood? (self identity)
▪Psychological characteristics and traits - children
increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits in contrast to the more concrete self-descriptions of younger children. Older children are more likely to describe themselves as popular, nice, helpful, mean, smart, and dumb
▪Social descriptions - Children begin to include social aspects such as references to social groups in their self- descriptions
Social comparison - Children’s self-understanding includes increasing reference to social comparison.
▪ Children begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves. Children’s self-evaluations become more realistic
45
what is the developmental changes in adolescence (self identity)
▪ The development of self-understanding in adolescence is complex and involves a number of aspects of the self
▪ Adolescents have a tendency to compare themselves with others. However, most deny it because they are aware that it is somewhat socially undesirable to do so.
▪ Youth who effectively navigate their various worlds can develop bicultural or multicultural selves and become “culture brokers” for others.
Other ways adolescent’s self-understanding differs: ▪ Abstract and idealistic
▪ Self-consciousness - egocentrism
▪ Contradictions within the self
▪ The fluctuating self
▪ Real and ideal selves (‘possible self’)
▪ Self-integration – detect inconsistencies
46
define social cognition
Social Cognition - Refers to the processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially how we think and reason about other people.
47
explain prosocial vs antisocial behaviour
Prosocial behaviour - Taking another’s perspective improves children’s likelihood of understanding and sympathizing with others when they are distressed or in need
▪Antisocial behaviour - Some researchers have found that children who have a low level of perspective taking skills engage in more antisocial behaviour than children at higher levels
48
explain the difference between self esteem and self concept
Self-Esteem - A person’s self-worth or self-image, a person’s global evaluation of the self.
Self-Concept - Domain-specific evaluations of the self.
▪ Self-esteem refers to global self-evaluations, self- concept to more domain-specific evaluations.
49
what are the 5 Harter’s (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children
▪Scholastic competence ▪Athletic competence ▪Social acceptance ▪Physical appearance ▪Behavioural conduct
50
Harter also developed a separate scale for adolescents: Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, what does it access?
It assesses global self-worth and the five domains
tested for children plus three additional domains— close friendship, romantic appeal, and job competence.
▪Self-esteem appears to have an especially strong tie with physical appearance.
51
what are some correlations between good self esteem and children
Researchers have also found strong links between self- esteem and happiness
High self-esteem children are prone to both prosocial and antisocial actions
Children with high self-esteem show greater initiative, but this can produce positive or negative outcomes
52
Identity is a self-portrait composed of: ▪ Vocational/career identity
▪ Vocational/career identity
▪Political identity
▪Religious identity
▪Relationship identity ▪Achievement/Intellectual identity ▪Sexual identity
▪Cultural/Ethnic identity
▪Interest, personality, and physical identity
53
define Psychosocial moratorium
Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and
adult autonomy during which society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibility and free to try out different identities.
54
what is a current concern about the development of identity was voiced by Damon
What concerns Damon is that too many of today’s youth aren’t moving toward any identity resolution.
55
explain crisis in identity
Crisis - A period of identity development during
| which the individual is exploring alternatives (most researchers use the term exploration rather than crisis).
56
what are Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity
Identity diffusion - Individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
▪ Identity foreclosure - Individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis.
▪ Identity moratorium - Individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined.
▪ Identity achievement - Individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.
57
define gender role
A set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel.
58
define gender identity
The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 2 years old.
59
define gender typing
Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
60
define gender dysphoria
The experience of extreme discomfort with one’s gender assigned at birth
61
what are the hormones that influence gender development
– Estrogens
• Primarily influence the development of female physical sex
characteristics.
• Help regulate the menstrual cycle.
• Estrogens are a general class of hormones.
• In females, estrogens are produced mainly by the ovaries.
– Androgens
• Primarily promote the development of male genitals and
secondary sex characteristics.
• One important androgen is testosterone.
• Produced by the adrenal glands in males and females, and by the
testes in males.
62
Unusual levels of sex hormones early in development may result in problems such as:
Congenitaladrenalhyperplasia(CAH) • Androgen-insensitivemales
• Pelvic field defect
• In addition, inappropriate sex reassignment may also occur after birth.
63
what does evolutionary psychology say about gender development
Emphasizes that evolutionary adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological differences between males and females
• Males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking.
• Females evolved dispositions devoted to parenting and choosing mates who can provide their offspring with resources and protection.
64
explain social role theory
Social Role Theory
–Gender differences result from the contrasting roles of
women and men.
–In most cultures around the world, women have less power
and status than men have, and they control fewer resources –In Eagly’s view, as women adapted to roles with less power
and less status in society, they showed more cooperative,
less dominant profiles than men.
–The social hierarchy and division of labour are important
causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurture
65
explain psychoanalytic theory in terms of gender development
Stems from Freud’s view that the pre-school child develops erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent.
• At 5 or 6 years of age, the child renounces these feelings and identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s characteristics.
• Developmentalists do not believe gender development proceeds as Freud proposed
66
explain social cognitive theory in terms of development
Children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviour
• Even children’s drawings of themselves differ for boys and girls
–Girls’ drawings focus on the social and psychological aspects;
–Boys’ drawings focus on physical activities
67
explain Gender Schema Theory
Gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop
| gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender- inappropriate in their culture
68
What is the reality behind gender stereotypes?
1. The differences are averages and do not apply to all
females or all males.
2. Even when gender differences occur, there often is
considerable overlap between males and females.
3. The differences may be due primarily to biological factors, sociocultural factors, or both.
69
what are the gender differences cognitively between males and females
• A recent research review revealed that boys have better visuospatial skills than girls.
Research has shown that, in general, girls and women have slightly better verbal skills than boys and men, although in some verbal skills areas the differences are substantial
70
What is Gender-Role Classification?
Instead of describing masculinity and femininity as a continuum in which more of one means less of the other, it is proposed that individuals can have both masculine and feminine traits.
71
define androgyny
hepresenceofmasculineandfeminine characteristics in the same person
• Gender experts argue that androgynous individuals are more
flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts.
72
define Gender-Role Transcendence
An alternative to androgyny.
• The view that when an individual’s competence is at
issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny
• We should think about ourselves as people, not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous.
73
What is Moral Development?
Thoughts, feelings, and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong.
– Intrapersonal dimension: Regulates a person’s activities when s/he is not engaged in social interaction.
– Interpersonal dimension: Regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict
74
what is Moral Thought - Piaget’s Theory
Piaget (1932) concluded that children go through two distinct stages, separated by a transition period, in how they think about morality.
Heteronomous morality
– Occurs from 4 to 7 yrs of age.
– Justice and rules are conceived of as
unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.Judges the rightness or goodness of behaviour by considering its consequences, not the intentions of the actor.
– Believes that rules are unchangeable and are handed down by all-powerful authorities.
– Believes in immanent justice - If a rule is broken, punishment will be dealt out immediately.
– The young child believes that a violation is connected automatically to its punishment.
There is a transitional period from 7 to 10 years of age
– Children show features of both the first and second stages of moral development.
Autonomous Morality
– Children about 10 yrs of age and older.
– They become aware that rules and laws are
created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
– Older children recognize that punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing and that, even then, punishment is not inevitable.
75
explain Moral Thought - The Kohlberg theory 6 Stages
level one- pre conventional level
```
Stage 1 (punishment and obedience orientation)
children obey bc adults tell them too, obey for fear of punishment
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Stage 2 (individualism, purpose, exchange)
individuals pursue own interests and let others do the same what is right involves equal exchange
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Level two- conventional level
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stage 3 (mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, interpersonal conformity)
individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as basis for moral judgement
```
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stage 4 (social system morality)
moral judgements based social order law justice and duty
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level three- post conventional level
```
stage 5 (social contract utility and individual rights)
individuals reason that values rights and principles transcend the law
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stage 6(universal ethical principles)
moral judgements based on universal human rights, dilemma between law and conscious
```
76
explain Moral Behaviour - Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory - Distinguishes between moral competence (the ability to perform moral behaviours) and moral performance (performing those behaviours in specific situations)
– Moral competencies - What individuals are capable of doing. The outgrowth of cognitive-sensory processes.
– Moral performance - Determined by motivation and the rewards/incentives to act in a moral way.• Stresses that moral development is best understood by considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self control.
• Self-regulation (not abstract reasoning) is the key to positive moral development.
77
explain Moral Feeling - Psychoanalytic Theory
n Freud’s view, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty are the foundations of moral behaviour.
• In Freud’s theory, the superego is the moral branch of personality.
• According to Freud, children fear losing their parent’s love and being punished for their unacceptable sexual wishes toward the opposite-sex parent. To reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection, children identify with the same-sex parent.
• Through this identification, children internalize the parent’s standards of right and wrong, which reflect societal prohibitions, and hence develop the superego.
• Children conform to societal standards to avoid guilt.
78
Damon’s Description of Developmental Changes in Empathy
early infancy- global empathy young infants empathetic response doesn't distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others
1-2 yrs- more genuine feelings of concern for others distress, cannotbtranslate feelings into effective action
early childhood- become aware that every person's perspective is unique, allows child to respond more appropriately
10-12yrs- develop empathy for others that live in unfortunate circumstances
79
Three aspects of moral personality that have recently been emphasized are:
* Moral identity
| * Moral character • Moral exemplars
80
what role does parenting play in moral development
* Both Piaget and Kohlberg held that parents do not provide unique or essential inputs to children’s moral development.
* Parents, in their view, are responsible for providing role-taking opportunities and cognitive conflict.
* Peers play the primary role in moral development.
81
what are The most important aspects of the relationship between parents and children that contribute to children’s moral development are:
1. Relational Quality
• Parent-child relationships introduce
children to the mutual obligations of close relationships
• Parents’ obligations include engaging in positive caregiving and guiding children to become competent human beings.
• Children’s obligations include responding appropriately to parents’ initiatives and maintaining a positive relationship with parents.
2. Parental Discipline
• Discipline techniques used by parents
can be classified as: – Love withdrawal – Power assertion – Induction3. Proactive Strategies
– Avert potential misbehaviour by children
before it takes place
– With younger children, being proactive
means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or moving them to alternative activities.
– With older children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important.
3. Proactive Strategies
– Avert potential misbehaviour by children
before it takes place
– With younger children, being proactive
means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or moving them to alternative activities.
– With older children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important.
82
Children who behave morally tend to have parents who:
Are warm and supportive, not punitive
– Use inductive discipline
– Provide opportunities for learning about others’ perspectives and feelings
– Involvechildreninfamilydecisionmakingandinthe process of thinking about moral discussion
– Model moral behaviours and thinking
– Provide information about what behaviours are expected
and why
– Foster an internal rather than an external sense of morality
83
what role does school have in moral development
Moral atmosphere that is part of every school.
• Created by school and classroom rules, moral orientation of teachers and school administrators, text materials.
Character Education
• A direct approach that involves teaching
students a basic “moral literacy” to prevent them from engaging in immoral behaviour and doing harm to themselves or others
Values Clarification - Helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for.
Cognitive Moral Education - A concept based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
84
what are the Preventative measures for decreasing academic cheating:
Making sure students are aware of what constitutes cheating
• What the consequences will be if they cheat
• Closely monitoring student’s behaviour while
they are taking tests
• Stress the importance of being a moral, responsible individual who engages in academic integrity
85
define Altruism
An unselfish interest in helping another person.
86
what are the 3 aspects of prosocial behaviour
Equality - Everyone is treated the same.
• Merit - Giving extra rewards for hard work, a talented
performance, or other laudatory behaviour.
• Benevolence - Giving special consideration to individuals in a disadvantaged condition.
87
what is a conduct disorder
Age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society’s norms, and the personal or property rights of others.
• About 5% of children show serious conduct problems, also called an externalizing or under controlled pattern of behaviour.
• Possible causes are genetic inheritance of a difficult temperament, ineffective parenting, and living in a neighborhood where violence is the norm.
88
what are the Three developmental pathways to delinquency:
Authority conflict - Stubbornness prior to age 12, then defiance and avoidance of authority.
– Covert - Minor covert acts (e.g., lying) followed by property damage and moderately serious delinquency, then serious delinquency.
– Overt - Minor aggression followed by fighting and violence.
