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T4 Research Literacy > Class 1 > Flashcards

Class 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is research in simple terms?

A

Research is the process of seeking out knowledge by collecting and analyzing data for a specific purpose.

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2
Q

What is the origin of the word “research”?

A

It comes from the Old French word ‘recerche’—‘re’ meaning to go back and ‘cherche’ meaning to search closely.

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3
Q

When was the term “research” first used?

A

In the 1700s to describe a series of inquiries for knowledge.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of research?

A

To inform based on collected and analyzed data. It explores, describes, or shows causation.

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5
Q

What are the three different purposes of research?

A
  1. Exploratory – Understand a phenomenon and inform action
  2. Descriptive – Understand characteristics and behavior
  3. Causal – Analyze the relationship between variables, explain changes, and test a theory
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6
Q

What is the general process of a research study?

A
  1. Study/investigation into a specific problem, concern, or issue
  2. Issue becomes a question
  3. Research is done to answer the question
  4. The question/problem helps to form objectives
  5. From objectives, a hypothesis is formed
  6. The rest of the research is done to support or debunk the hypothesis
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7
Q

What distinguishes scientific from non-scientific research?

A

• Scientific research uses the scientific method
• Non-scientific research does not and instead relies on tradition, personal experience, intuition, and logic

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8
Q

What is tradition in the context of non-scientific research?

A

Beliefs or knowledge accepted as true because they have been traditionally accepted without question.

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9
Q

What is personal experience in non-scientific research?

A

Understanding from firsthand experience; it is subjective and not reproducible.

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10
Q

Give an example of personal experience used as evidence.

A

If someone is treated with massage for low back pain and feels better, both the therapist and patient might view massage as effective—but this is personal experience, not scientific proof.

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11
Q

What is intuitive knowledge?

A

Understanding or belief based on gut instinct or personal insight. Confidence in intuition does not equal accuracy.

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12
Q

What question challenges the reliability of intuition?

A

Is it possible to be right on intuition alone? If so, does that make you always right?

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13
Q

What is logic in the context of non-scientific research?

A

The use of thought and reasoning to reach a conclusion. However, conclusions can be flawed by personal viewpoints.

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14
Q

What question highlights a limitation of logic?

A

Can you think about something you don’t already know?

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15
Q

What is scientific research?

A

A careful, detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue that uses the scientific method. It is reproducible and consistent.

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16
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A testable, educated guess based on prior knowledge and observation, serving as a starting point for scientific inquiry.

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17
Q

What are the key features of a hypothesis?

A

• Suggested solution for an unexplained occurrence
• Must be testable
• Tests can be independently replicated
• Used to derive predictions for future experiments

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18
Q

What is a theory in general terms?

A

A hunch or idea intended to explain or justify a phenomenon; a broad explanation for a wide range of phenomena.

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19
Q

What is a scientific theory?

A

• A framework for interpreting observations and facts
• Careful, rational, and systematic
• Formed from many independently tested hypotheses

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20
Q

How is a scientific theory different from a law?

A

• Theory explains why something happens and can be supported, rejected, or modified
• Law describes what happens every time, with no explanation why

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21
Q

What are characteristics of a scientific theory?

A

• Predictive
• Used to develop inventions or cures
• Explains observations gathered during scientific processes

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22
Q

What are characteristics of a scientific law?

A

• Describes observed phenomena
• Holds true every time it is tested
• Does not explain why the phenomenon occurs
• Examples: gravity, motion, gas laws

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23
Q

What is science?

A

Science is knowledge covering general truths and laws, especially as tested through the scientific method. It involves systemic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation, and includes any branches of natural or physical sciences.

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24
Q

How is scientific knowledge gained?

A

Through systematic observation and experimentation in the physical or material world.

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25
What does scientific evidence do?
It supports or disconfirms a scientific hypothesis or theory—it does not prove or disprove them.
26
Is scientific evidence singular or plural?
It is plural and diverse.
27
What types of studies and forms of evidence are included in scientific evidence?
• Scientific research • Animal studies (laboratory-based) • Chemical analysis (laboratory-based) • Observational or qualitative studies • Experimental studies that are repeatable and consistent
28
What fields are included in scientific knowledge?
Anatomy, neurology, physiology, pathology, psychology, sociology, etc.
29
What underpins scientific evidence?
Philosophy
30
What is the scientific method?
A systematic and organized set of steps requiring measurement to analyze results related to theories about the world.
31
How is data typically obtained through the scientific method?
Through measurement and observation, using quantitative and qualitative methods.
32
What are the contributions of science to empirical knowledge?
Science allows us to describe, explain, and predict the nature of the world using theoretical frameworks and research methods.
33
What is empirical knowledge?
• Knowledge derived from observation or experiment • Verifiable or provable through observation or experiment • A philosophy of medicine emphasizing practical experience and observation over theory
34
What is an important feature of empirical knowledge to keep in mind?
Despite deep understanding from science, empirical knowledge always has limits and should be critically evaluated.
35
What is critical thinking?
The awakening of the intellect to the study of itself; it is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication. It serves as a guide to belief and action.
36
What does critical thinking involve?
Actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information from observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication.
37
What is biological plausibility?
The application of existing basic and clinical science to a new hypothesis to assess how likely an idea is to be true.
38
What does biological plausibility apply?
Prior biological and medical knowledge and scientific laws.
39
Why should biological plausibility be contextualized with clinical evidence?
Because clinical evidence must also be put into the context of scientific plausibility to ensure balanced interpretation.
40
What are the three broad categories of biological plausibility?
1. Treatments with a known mechanism of action that should, according to existing models, produce a clinical effect. 2. Treatments that are not implausible but neutral or unknown in terms of plausibility—no reason to think they work or don't. 3. Treatments that are inherently implausible, lack a known mechanism of action, and violate basic laws of science.
41
What defines treatments with known biological plausibility?
They have known mechanisms of action that align with existing models and are expected to produce a clinical effect.
42
What characterizes neutral biological plausibility?
There’s no strong reason to believe the treatment works or doesn’t—it remains scientifically neutral or unknown.
43
What are inherently implausible treatments?
Treatments lacking a known mechanism of action and that violate basic scientific laws.
44
To which category of biological plausibility does massage therapy fit? Why?
Massage therapy fits the known or neutral category.
45
What provides mechanistic support for the biological plausibility of massage therapy?
• Improved circulation: Stimulates blood and lymphatic flow • Reduced muscle tension: Mechanical manipulation of soft tissues • Pain reduction: Gate control theory of pain and endorphin release • Stress/anxiety reduction: Lowers cortisol; increases serotonin/dopamine • Reduced inflammation: Potential effects on cytokines and immune signaling
46
Why is massage therapy considered biologically plausible?
Its mechanisms are consistent with known anatomy and physiology, supporting its plausibility.
47
Does the biological plausibility of massage therapy vary?
Yes, it varies depending on the specific condition massage is used for.
48
What is the biological plausibility of massage therapy for muscle soreness and tension?
Strong — Direct mechanical effects support it.
49
Why is massage therapy considered biologically plausible for muscle soreness and tension?
Because direct mechanical effects support its use.
50
What is the biological plausibility of massage therapy for anxiety and stress?
Moderate to strong — Supported by physiological and hormonal studies.
51
What evidence supports the biological plausibility of massage for anxiety and stress?
It is supported by physiological and hormonal studies.
52
What is the biological plausibility of massage therapy for chronic pain (e.g., fibromyalgia)?
Moderate — Complex mechanisms involved, some support.
53
Why is massage considered moderately plausible for chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia?
Because complex mechanisms are involved and there is some support.
54
What is the biological plausibility of massage therapy for cancer treatment support?
Moderate — May help with symptoms (pain, anxiety), not the disease itself.
55
Why is massage used for cancer treatment support considered only moderately plausible?
Because it may help with symptoms (pain, anxiety), not the disease itself.
56
What is the biological plausibility of massage therapy for internal organ disease (e.g., liver/kidney)?
Weak — Limited or no plausible direct biological pathway.
57
Why is massage considered weakly plausible for internal organ diseases like liver or kidney disease?
Because there is limited or no plausible direct biological pathway.
58
What is the principle behind Evidence-Based Practice?
Informed medical decision-making is achieved by integrating the best available evidence with clinical expertise and patient values.
59
What five steps must clinicians be able to understand and apply to be competent in evidence-based practice?
1. Ask a clinical question 2. Acquire evidence to answer the question 3. Critically appraise the evidence 4. Apply evidence to the clinical question 5. Assess the process related to the clinical context
60
What is the placebo effect in research also known as?
Non-Specific Treatment Effect (NSTE)
61
What is the role of the placebo group in research?
It serves as a control of expectations.
62
What is a placebo treatment?
An inert treatment that the participant does not know is not real.
63
What do Non-Specific Treatment Effects (NSTE) consist of?
The natural course of healing and observed or contextual effects of treatment.
64
What are examples of contextual effects in treatment?
Psychological effects, suggestion, conditioning, and neurobiological responses.
65
Do contextual effects improve objective measurements like survival rates or ROM?
No, they do not improve objective measurements.
66
What types of outcomes may contextual effects improve?
Subjective reports such as nausea, pain, or the feeling that it is easier to breathe or move.
67
What is Regression to the Mean (RTM)?
A statistical phenomenon where unusually high or low measurements are followed by measurements closer to the average.
68
Why is RTM important in research?
Because natural variation in repeated data can look like real change, even when it is not.
69
How many sets of data are needed to avoid falsely attributing effects to RTM?
More than one set of data is required to rule out RTM.
70
What does increasing evidence suggest about RTM and placebo?
RTM is a much bigger part of the placebo response than genuine psychosomatic placebo effects.
71
What is skepticism in Western philosophy?
The attitude of doubting knowledge claims in various areas.
72
What do skeptics challenge?
The adequacy, reliability, and rational grounds of knowledge claims and assumptions.
73
What is scientific skepticism based on?
The principles of scientific investigation or the Scientific Method.
74
What kinds of claims does scientific skepticism address?
Testable claims only; untestable claims are outside the realm of science.
75
What does ethics concern?
Right and wrong conduct, or what we ought and ought not to do.
76
What does medical ethics deal with?
Moral problems arising in patient care and situations that require more than just considering the patient’s medical condition.
77
What are the four main ethical principles in healthcare?
1. Autonomy 2. Beneficence 3. Non-maleficence 4. Justice
78
What does the principle of autonomy relate to?
The patient's capacity to think, decide, and act on their own initiative.
79
What must a healthcare provider do to uphold patient autonomy?
• Provide full information for decision making • Uphold the patient’s decision, even if it appears medically wrong
80
What is beneficence in healthcare ethics?
Promoting what is best for the patient and doing good by others.
81
What ethical conflict can arise in beneficence?
A conflict between the patient’s wishes and the health professional’s judgement.
82
What should be considered under beneficence?
The patient’s physical and mental suffering and the risks of treatment.
83
What does non-maleficence mean?
Do no harm — careful risk/benefit consideration.
84
What ethical questions does justice raise in healthcare?
• Do the needs of the few outweigh the needs of the many? • Should triage be used to prioritize care?
85
What kind of conflict can occur between ethical principles in justice?
A disparity between beneficence, autonomy, and justice.
86
What is epistemology?
Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief and the creation and dissemination of knowledge.
87
What key questions are addressed in epistemology?
• What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge? • What are its sources, structure, limits? • How are we to understand the concept of justification? • What makes justified beliefs justified? • Is justification internal or external to one's own mind?
88
What is ontology?
Ontology is the science or study of being that deals with the nature of reality. It focuses on understanding whether things exist or do not exist.
89
What types of questions are examined in ontology?
• What is God? • What is a disease? • What happens after death? • What is artificial intelligence? Ontology tries to understand why a particular thing occurs and how it is related to other things.
90
What is belief?
Belief is a trust, faith, or acceptance that a statement is true or a thing exists.
91
How is faith distinguished from evidence-based belief?
A personal choice to maintain a belief based on an untestable hypothesis is best labeled faith, distinguishing it from a belief based on supportive evidence.
92
Why does knowledge require justification?
Justification ensures that a known proposition is not just a lucky guess.
93
How does justification differ between actions and beliefs?
• Action: Justification is assessed from a moral or prudential point of view. Example: If a question is inappropriate, you may justify not answering or telling the truth. • Belief: Justification relates to the pursuit of truth and the reasoning that supports belief.
94
What is evidentialism?
A theory where justification of belief depends on evidence such as perceptual, introspective, memorial, and intuitional experiences.
95
Give examples of evidentialism.
• The coffee in your cup tastes sweet to you. • If you feel a throbbing pain, you're justified in believing you have a headache. • If you remember eating cereal, you have evidence for a belief about the past.
96
What is reliabilism?
Reliabilism suggests that justification comes from the reliability of cognitive processes (like memory, perception, intuition), rather than direct evidence.
97
Provide an example of reliabilism.
A doctor recalls a previous patient with similar symptoms and applies rational intuition based on memory to diagnose the current patient.
98
What are the two oppositional epistemological methods used in science?
Rationalism and Empiricism.
99
What is rationalism?
A belief that knowledge can be gained independently of sense experience.
100
What are the two types of reasoning under rationalism?
• Induction: Knowledge is gained through intuition in a particular subject area. • Deduction: Conclusions derived from intuited premises through valid arguments. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
101
What is intuition in the context of epistemology?
The ability to understand something immediately, without conscious reasoning; a belief from instinctive feeling rather than logic.
102
What is empiricism?
The acquisition of knowledge through observation and experience; knowledge must be verified through the senses (epistemological realism).
103
What is epistemological realism?
The idea in empiricism that something cannot be considered true unless it is verified through the senses.
104
How does science use both empiricism and rationalism?
Science combines both by validating rationalist conclusions and assumptions through empirical methods of observation and experience in a cycle of progressive knowledge.

T4 Research Literacy (1 decks)

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