Class 11: Brain training, transfer, limits of expertise, deliberate practice, mental representations, and chunking Flashcards
(255 cards)
1
Q
In some fields, if you follow specific training methods with diligence, you can become an expert. What are the 4 characteristics that these fields have in common?
A
- There are always objective or semi-objective ways to win 2. These fields are competitive enough to create incentive for practice and improvement 3. These fields are generally well established 4. There are a subset of individuals who serve as teachers and coaches who develop sophisticated training techniques
2
Q
According to “Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise,” does deliberate practice: a) Depend solely on natural ability and genetics b) Involve only physical repetition of skills c) Both produce and depend on mental representations d) Require a fixed amount of time for each practice session
A
Answer: c) Both produce and depend on mental representations
3
Q
Why did chess expert Patrick Wolff have difficulty recalling some configurations of chess pieces but not others?
A
His expertise is focused on patterns, so he remembers pieces in the context of an ongoing game. When the pieces are randomised, there is no pattern, and his expertise does not transfer to the task.
4
Q
Q: What is deliberate practice? A) Mindlessly repeating a task B) Performing a task without any guidance C) Practicing with the goal of improving specific skills D) Practicing for a certain amount of time each day
A
A: C) Practicing with the goal of improving specific skills.
5
Q
The ability to identify patterns in a collection of things that might appear random or confused to someone with less developed mental representations is a characteristic of experts performance in almost every field.Is this true or false?
A
TRUE
6
Q
According to Chapter 4 of “Peak,” what are the three key characteristics that define the “Gold Standard” of expert performance?
A
The three key characteristics that define the “Gold Standard” of expert performance, as described in Chapter 4 of “Peak,” are deliberate practice, feedback, and the ability to perform under pressure.
7
Q
According to “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise,” innate talent is the most important factor in achieving expertise.
A
FALSE
8
Q
what is a mental representation?
A
a mental structure that correctly corresponds to an object, idea, or concept.
9
Q
When shown chessboards with the chess pieces arranged randomly, how did the mid-range player and chess master do in remembering the positions of the pieces in regard to the novice chess player?
A
The same. They were only able to get two or three pieces right.
10
Q
Fill in the Blanks: The ACTIVE trial demonstrates clearly the concept of _________ improvement, also referred to as _______ transfer.
A
Training specific, narrow.
11
Q
mental representation
A
a mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract that the brain is thinking about.
12
Q
What is the name of the single largest brain-training intervention that Dan Simons mentioned?
A
The ACTIVE trial (involved about 3,000 older adults). The main result showed that brain training may improve training-specific tasks. E.g., if you trained on a reaction time task, you’ll likely improve on that reaction time task or something very similar (a.k.a., narrow transfer).
13
Q
What is a mental representation?
A
A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
14
Q
Fill in the blank. During class, a peer mentions burgers, and immediately you see an image of a burger in your mind. The image that appears is your ____ ____ of a burger.
A
Mental representation.
15
Q
How is a book mentally represented when writing?
A
write well, develop a mental representation ahead of time to guide you, then monitor and evaluate being ready to modify if necessary.
16
Q
True/False Both formal discipline theory and transfer by identical elements are based on modern research on transfer of training.
A
FALSE
17
Q
Ericsson and Pool argue that expert performers develop mental representations that allow them to efficiently process and retrieve information relevant to their domain. These mental representations are often referred to as __________.
A
chunks.
18
Q
True or False: There is substantial publication bias in the Brain Training literature
A
True: The authors of the systematic review of brain training programs highlighted the publication bias present in the literature.
19
Q
True or False. One advantage of the brain training program is that it improves abilities to transfer skills into broader contexts.
A
False. Evidence demonstrated that brain training programs only affect narrow transfer and learning processes in specific tasks.
20
Q
Q: According to Ericsson and Pool, what is the difference between deliberate practice and regular practice? A) Deliberate practice is only for experts B) Deliberate practice involves feedback and specific goals C) Regular practice is more enjoyable D) Regular practice requires less time and effort
A
A: B) Deliberate practice involves feedback and specific goals, while regular practice may lack those components.
21
Q
What is the term used to describe the process by which experts in a given domain become so proficient that their performance becomes “automatic”? A) Mental modeling B) Skill acquisition C) Deliberate practice D) Proceduralization
A
D) Proceduralization
22
Q
True or false: When shown random chess patterns for 5 seconds, professional chess players can almost perfectly re-create them.
A
False. Chess players outperform lay people only when there is “chess relevant meaning” in the patterns they were shown.
23
Q
True or False. Brain games (such as Lumosity, CogMed, etc.) significantly improve broad cognitive abilities and aid general daily activities.
A
False.
24
Q
does a mental representation have to be accurate?
A
no, mental representations can be inaccurate, and can vary in detail. however, accuracy may impact the quality of results when completing a task.
25
true or false: using standard psychological techniques, the researchers examined what was going on in the brains of climbers when they surveyed the various holds.
TRUE
26
Define the item 'Placebo Effect'.
Placebo Effect: Refers to the phenomenon where a person experiences a perceived improvement in a condition or symptom due to receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, but believes it to be effective.
27
According to Ericsson and Pool's "Peak," what is the primary focus of mental representations? A) Organization of skills and knowledge B) Development of physical abilities C) Understanding of emotional states D) Acquisition of linguistic fluency
A) Organization of skills and knowledge
28
True/False: The ability to recognize and remember meaningful patterns arises from the way chess players develop their abilities
TRUE
29
True or False: Brain training programs have been scientifically proven to improve cognitive functions such as memory and attention.
False. While brain training programs claim to improve cognitive functions, the scientific evidence supporting these claims is limited and often not strong.
30
What is the simplest example of how short-term memory comes into play in our lives?
Memorizing lists of things.
31
What are mental representations?
Cognitive structures that experts use to organise and store information about their domain. Mental representations can be developed and refined through deliberate practice, leading to increased expertise.
32
Why is deliberate practice more effective than other forms of practice?
Deliberate practice is more effective because it is goal-oriented and specifically targets areas for improvement. It involves breaking down complex skills into smaller, manageable components, allowing individuals to focus on specific aspects of their performance. This approach, coupled with immediate feedback and repetition, facilitates continuous refinement of mental representations and promotes the development of expertise.
33
What is a mental representation
A mental structure that corresponds to a idea, object or collection of information
34
Chess masters visualise the physical chess pieces on a board when asked about what they see when they are mentally examining a chess position.
FALSE
35
What is an alternative explanation for some of the evidence showing that people improved with brain training tasks?
practice effects- if you practice something, you're likely to get better at it.
36
According to Ericsson and Pool what is blindfolded chess a great example of?
Purposeful practise.
37
What is “knowledge transforming” as referred to by Ericsson and Pool?
It is the process of a writer’s knowledge evolving and getting changed by the process of writing
38
fiil in the blank: experienced climbers had developed mental representations of holds that allowed them to know without _____, what sort of grip was required for each hold they saw
conscious thought
39
Define Mental Representations
A mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information or anything else that the brain is thinking about.
40
Chapter 4 of "Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise" explores the concept of deliberate practice and how it can lead to the development of expertise. What are some of the key elements of deliberate practice, and how can individuals apply these principles to improve their own skills and knowledge?
Deliberate practice involves intentionally practicing a skill or domain with a focus on specific goals, feedback, and repetition. Key elements of deliberate practice include breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable parts, seeking out feedback from experts, identifying weaknesses and areas for improvement, and dedicating a significant amount of time and effort to practice. Individuals can apply these principles to improve their own skills and knowledge by setting clear goals, seeking out constructive feedback, and creating a practice routine that focuses on specific areas for improvement.
41
active control groups are used for
controlling against placebo effects
42
True or False Grand Master Patrick Wolff was able to memorise the pieces on a chess board better than a novice player when the pieces were set up like someone had played the game and when the pieces were set up randomly on the board.
FALSE- Grand Master Patrick Wolff performed immensely better than novice players when the pieces were set up like someone had been playing however, when the pieces were set up randomly he did not perform any better than the novice.
43
To determine true or false: provide a few seemingly random words (was smelling the one in front of him for peanuts, he was so hungry, there were hardly any women so he could contain) and ask people to repeat them. The first method of repetition is to rearrange the words into meaningful sentences, e.g. "The woman in front of him was eating peanuts and smelled so good that he could barely control his hunger." The second method of repetition is to ask the person to recall the words word by word. Those who used the first method remembered about the same number of words as those who used the second method.
False. People who use the first method are able to remember more words because when words are arranged to have meaning, people are able to use pre-existing 'mental representations' to understand them, and thus will remember them better
44
According to Simons, what effects DID the systematic review of brain training studies discover?
Effects of practice, learning, and narrow transfer of training to very similar tasks.
45
Which of the following is NOT a common short-coming of RCTs? a) Missing critical tests b) Inadequate control groups C) Selective reporting of outcomes D) Representative samples
d) is incorrect, non-representative samples are a shortcoming
46
What are mental representations?
Mental models used by experts to process and organise information.
47
True or false: There is substantial evidence and hardly any contradiction in the literature about the effectiveness of brain trainings.
False. Unfortunately, there are multiple contradictions and unethical research practices evident in brain training literature.
48
What is the concept of transfer in relation to brain training?
The concept of transfer refers to the idea that improvements in one cognitive function as a result of brain training will transfer to other cognitive functions.
49
According to Ericsson & Pool (2016), what differentiates the best musicians from the mediocre ones?
The quality of the mental representations they create.
50
What are some of shortcomings of Random Control Trials in brain-training research?
1. Small or non-representative samples 2. Inadequate control groups 3. Selective Reporting of Outcomes 4. Missing Critical Tests 5. Opaque Publishing Practices
51
TRUE OR FALSE: When recalling randomly generated positions of chess pieces, the expert performed better than novices
FALSE - the expert only performed better when positions were not randomly generated and are used in chess
52
True or False: Individuals may need to develop new mental representations when they are entering new domains or trying to learn new skills, rather than to rely solely on their existing mental representations.
True. This is because mental representation is very “domain specific” as it applies only to the skill for which they were developed.
53
True or False. Chess experts consistently do better than novice's at recalling positions on a chess board both when randomly generated.
False - when the positions are randomly generated experts do no better than novices at recalling the position of chess pieces on a board
54
What fundamental concept do brain training games rely on?
Generalisation. The claim that a skill or capacity refined in one specific domain will also apply or affect performance in another domain.
55
What are the key findings of the 1973 classic study of expert chess memory by William Chase and Herbert Simon?
An expert player remembered almost all of the pieces correctly. An amateur and a novice recalled far fewer pieces and made more mistakes. But when the regular chess positions were replaced by randomly generated positions, the expert was no better than the novice.
56
Mental representations are internal models of external reality. True/False?
True. Mental representations are internal models of external reality.
57
In Malcolm Gladwell's 2008 study, he claimed that someone can become profficient in any endeavour after practising it for approximately ten thousand hours. Why is this a problematic claim?
It is problematic for three key reasons. Firstly, there is nothing special about the '10,000 hours rule' Malcolm Gladwell produced. This number is not the requirement, as the amount of hours required to become proficient in a task varies from person to person, and field to field. Secondly, Gladwell misinterpreted the number of voilinists in his study that had reached the 10,000 hours point. He falsely believed they all had by age 20, when in reality only about half of them had. Lastly, in his study he didn't distinguish between 'deliberate practise' and any sort of activity that could be labeled 'practise.'
58
In Chapter 3 of "Peak," Ericsson and Pool suggest that individuals with more extensive and elaborate mental representations are able to: A) Remember information more efficiently B) Develop higher levels of creativity C) Solve problems more effectively D) Communicate more persuasively
C) Solve problems more effectively
59
A ______ ______________ is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about
mental representation
60
What are mental representations on how do they influence reasoning?
A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea or a collection of information that or anything else, concrete or abstract that the brain conjures up. Mental representations permit reasoning about unfamiliar situations drawing on the vast knowledge base developed over many years. When highly experienced individuals lack these relevant mental representations and associated knowledge are confronted with unfamiliar situations, they might perform poorly on tasks they otherwise would be good at.
61
In the 1973 experiment featuring Patrick Wolff, what was Patricks explanation for how he was trying to remember the 5 second images?
He was trying to make logical connections and to make those connections "make sense"
62
What was founf to be the difference between the abilities of the violin students.
The amount of time spent training in solitary was significantly different between the top groups. With more timeing being spent more indictave of better skills.
63
deliberate practice involves developing _____ mental representations
more efficient
64
True/False The controversy in the debate about brain training is whether and when practicing one task will improve performance on untrained tasks.
TRUE
65
Name any three of the characteristics of Deliberate Practice
Answers could include: 1.Takes place outside of one's comfort zone 2. Has well-defined, specific goals 3. Requires the person's full attention and conscious action 4. Involves feedback and modifications of effort based on feedback 5. Produces and depends on mental representations 6. Building on or modifying pre-existing skills 9. Pre-existing effective training techniques
66
What does the coined word “chunks” mean?
It was a word given by Bill Chase and Herb Simon to describe a chess player memorizing patterns (i.e. interactions among pieces) for storage in long-term memory.
67
What makes deliberate practice different from other sorts of purposeful practice?
1. It requires a field that is already reasonably well developed such that there is a level of competition and show a superior level of performance 2. It requires a teacher who can provide practice activities designed to help improve performance Thus, purposeful practice is purposeful and informed whereas deliberate practice is informed and guided by the best performers' accomplishments and by an understanding of what these expert performers do to excel.
68
What is the "ten-thousand hour rule" and is it true?
It is the idea that it takes 10,000 hours to become a master in most fields. This is not necessarily true, as numbers vary from field to field, and doesn't take into account many factors such as age, averaging techniques or type/quality of practice.
69
Why is it important do analyse past mistakes and weaknesses in a game of chess?
So that future games can avoid these pitfalls.
70
What is a mental representation?
Mental representations are, objects and structures in the mind with semantic properties. It allows individuals to perceive, process, understand, and recall stimuli.
71
What is the difference in deliberate and purposeful practice?
Deliberate practice is purposeful and informed, requiring a field that is well-developed and teachers who can provide practice activities.
72
Does purposeful or deliberate practice require a teacher to provide practice activities?
Deliberate practice
73
What is the potential downside of nudging according to Ritchie (2022)?
According to Ritchie (2022), the potential downside of nudging is that it can be used for manipulative purposes. Nudging can be used to influence people to make decisions that are not in their best interest or that they would not have made otherwise. Therefore, it is important to ensure that nudges are transparent and aligned with people's values and preferences.
74
Y/N: A chessplayer’s memory is very context dependent?
Yes. It is only for the sort that would appear in a normal game.
75
How do Ericsson and Pool define expertise?
Ericsson and Pool define expertise as a high level of performance in a specific domain that is the result of extensive training and deliberate practice, rather than innate talent.
76
Deliberate Practice
Type of focused and intentional practice that is aimed at improving a specific skill or ability It involves breaking down a task into its component parts, identifying areas of weakness, and working on those areas with concentrated effort and feedback
77
What is deliberate practice?
Focused, structured, and targeted efforts to improve specific skills.
78
To determine true or false: a chessboard with pieces arranged in the pattern of a real game of chess, in the same amount of time an expert can remember the position of the most pieces, followed by an intermediate player, and finally the least remembered by a novice.
True. Experienced players encode the positions of pieces on the board in a more efficient way by remembering the correlation between chess positions, rather than simply remembering which piece is in which position.
79
What is the difference between "mental representations" and "raw data" as described in Chapter 3 of "Peak" by Ericsson and Pool?
According to Ericsson and Pool, "mental representations" are the internalised structures that experts use to organise and make sense of information, while "raw data" refers to the unprocessed information that we encounter in the world.
80
Why can passive control groups in psychological research be problematic?
A passive control group may exhibit differences from the treatment group that are not related to the intended manipulation of the independent variable. For example, they may have had less social interaction or less practice with a computer, which could still impact the dependent variable being measured.
81
Define "the gold standard" in the context of expertise.
The gold standard is the benchmark of expert performance against which other individuals can be compared.
82
(True/False) Deliberate practices involve feedback and modification of efforts in response to the feedback
TRUE
83
Why are we more likely to memorise a well constructed sentence rather than a randomly constructed one?
Our brains are wired to identify meaning and relationships, as well as respond to patterns.
84
n Chapter 3 of "Peak," what is the "chunking" process, and how does it relate to the development of mental representations?
"Chunking" is a process of grouping individual pieces of information together into larger, more meaningful units, which can then be processed and stored more efficiently in long-term memory. According to Ericsson and Pool in Chapter 3 of "Peak," this process is a key factor in the development of mental representations, as it allows experts to organise and access their knowledge more quickly and effectively.
85
What are mental representations?
Answer: Mental representations are cognitive structures that allow us to organize and make sense of information in our minds.
86
Why do chess experts perform better than novices at recalling non-randomly places pieces on a chess board?
They use logic and knowledge of chess strategy to understand why the pieces are where they are. This leads them to make errors with pieces that are unimportant to the strategy of the game
87
What is the term coined by Bill Chase and Herb Simon for recognizing patterns rather than specifics, relying on long-term memory rather than short-term to aid in memorizing larger sets?
Chunks.
88
How does expertise and domain-specific knowledge influence memory, and how do chess experts use their knowledge to improve their memory performance?
Expertise and domain-specific knowledge strongly influence memory performance. Chess experts can recognize familiar patterns and structures in chess positions, which helps them encode and recall information more efficiently. They also have strategies for dealing with novel information that do not fit those patterns, but these strategies require more cognitive effort.
89
In the 1973 experiment featuring Patrick Wolf, what was the difference between the expert player and the amateur players?
That the images of specific chess postions were remembered almost perfectly by the expert, but when randomly generated chess postions were showed, there was no difference between the expert and amateur player
90
what is a mental representation?
"a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about"
91
True or False: A key fact about mental representation is that they are “domain specific”.
TRUE
92
According to Ericsson and Pool, what differentiates a good musician from a lesser one?
Their ability to have an accurate and detailed mental representation of the piece they are trying to practice.
93
The key to achieving expertise is not simply practicing a skill, but engaging in __________ practice, which involves pushing oneself outside of one's comfort zone and focusing on improving weaknesses.
deliberate
94
Do we have to always follow the ten thousand-hour rule to become experts in a field?
Yes and no. As long as we apply the principles of deliberate practice, and undergo related practices that are designed to achieve a certain goal, we are able to drastically improve particular aspects of performance.
95
What is the brain training industry?
The industry of selling programs that improve your cognitive skills on other things
96
T/F Mental representations are only important for experts and not for novices.
Answer: False. Explanation: In "Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise" by Ericsson and Pool (2016), mental representations are described as critical for both experts and novices. Mental representations help individuals structure and interpret information in their domain of expertise. While experts have more complex and refined mental representations, novices also benefit from developing them. The development of mental representations is a key part of improving performance and expertise in any skill or domain.
97
What is the role of feedback in deliberate practice?
Feedback allows experts to identify areas for improvement and adjust their practice strategies accordingly.
98
What are some measures of cognitive performance?
tests of processing speed, reasoning, intelligence, pattern recognition, and similar constructs, have long been used to predict academic and professional success
99
True or False: In the video "Memory for Chess Positions," grandmaster Patrick Wolff discusses the importance of brute force memorization for remembering chess positions.
False. In the video, grandmaster Patrick Wolff discusses his strategies for memorizing and visualizing chess boards, highlighting the importance of chunking and pattern recognition. He argues that chunking or breaking down complex information into smaller, more manageable units, is essential for memorization. Wolff's approach emphasizes using mental representations to solve complex problems, rather than brute-force memorization.
100
True or False? Deliberate practice takes place outside one’s comfort zone and requires a student to constantly try things that are just beyond his or her current abilities. Thus, it demands near-maximal effort, which is generally not enjoyable.
True
101
The core idea of a brain training program mentioned in the lecture by Simons was?
That by practicing one thing, you can get better at other things.
102
True or False. Deliberate practice can help individuals refine and develop their mental representations to improve their performance.
True. Deliberate practice involves focused and challenging activities designed to improve specific skills or aspects of performance, and can lead to the refinement and development of more complex and well-organized mental representations.
103
What factors made Patrick Wolff’s chess memory task more difficult?
The importance of pieces (some pieces hold less significance so he couldn't retain their placement) Logical connections of placement When the board was randomised
104
How do modern-day memory competitors use techniques of deliberate practice?
They learn from the best predecessors and develop training techniques based on what worked best to produce the same results and abilities.
105
What is dividing large pieces of information into smaller units called?
Chunking
106
True or False - Mental representations are static mental structures that are developed in early childhood.
False. Mental representations develop and become more sophisticated through practice and experience.
107
True or False, Experts in a particular field develop mental representations that allow them to recognize and respond to patterns in their domain of expertise.
TRUE
108
What are mental representations?
Mental representations are internal images that we form in our minds to help us understand and interact with the world around us.
109
What is the importance of working with a skilled coach or mentor?
A skilled coach or mentor can provide feedback and guidance, help individuals develop effective practice strategies, and accelerate the development of expertise.
110
How do mental representations differ between novices and experts?
Novices typically possess less detailed and less organized mental representations compared to experts. Experts have developed more intricate and refined mental representations through extensive practice and experience, allowing them to quickly recognize patterns, make connections, and solve problems in their field of expertise.
111
What is the main thing that sets experts apart from everyone else?
The years of practice expert goes through have changed the neural circuitry in their brains to produce highly specialised mental representations.
112
In the 'Do “Brain-Training” Programs Work?' article, a survey was conducted in which a number of participants defined brain training as what?
"Brain training is exercises or activities that do each of the following things: “improve memory,” “sharpen intellectual skills,” “help improve my attention span.” “help me think faster,” “prevent memory loss,” and “increase IQ.”
113
What is the difference between deliberate practice and regular practice?
Deliberate practice involves focused, goal-directed practice that involves pushing beyond one's comfort zone, receiving feedback, and continuously refining one's skills. Regular practice, on the other hand, is less structured and tends to involve repetition of already mastered skills.
114
What is the effectiveness of nudging according to the meta-analysis by Mertens et al. (2022)?
According to the meta-analysis by Mertens et al. (2022), nudging is effective in changing behavior across various domains such as health, environment, and finance. However, the size of the effect depends on the specific context and implementation of the nudge.
115
What is a mental representation? a. A visual representation of a concept or idea in the mind. b. A physical representation of a concept or idea in the brain. c. A symbolic representation of a concept or idea in the mind. d. A linguistic representation of a concept or idea in the brain
c. A mental representation is a symbolic representation of a concept or idea in the mind. It is a mental construct that allows us to perceive, understand, and manipulate the world around us.
116
What are mental representations?
Mental representations refer to the internal mental images or concepts that individuals use to represent information from the world around them. These representations can be based on sensory experiences, language, or other forms of information processing. They help individuals to make sense of the world and to interact with it effectively. Mental representations can be conscious or unconscious and can take many forms, such as mental images, schemas, or mental models.
117
What is inattentional blindness, and how does it affect our ability to perceive unexpected objects or events?
Inattentional blindness is the phenomenon of not noticing unexpected objects or events when one is focused on a specific task or goal. It can limit our ability to perceive important information in our environment and affect our decision-making.
118
What do the authors of Peak posit allows experts of subjects to better assimilate information relating to their subject of focus?
Familiarity. Examples given include chess experts reading chess notation, musicians reading scores, etc.
119
What is Mental Representation as defined in the text?
A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
120
What is expert intuition?
Expert intuition is the ability of experts to make quick and accurate decisions in real-world situations. It is a result of extensive experience and well-developed mental representations.
121
What is deliberate practice? a. Practice that focuses on improving weaknesses and pushing oneself out of one’s comfort zone. b. Practice that focuses on maintaining strengths and staying within one’s comfort zone. c. Practice that focuses on achieving a specific goal or outcome. d. Practice that focuses on repetition and memorization of information.
a. Deliberate practice is practice that focuses on improving weaknesses and pushing oneself out of one’s comfort zone. It involves setting specific goals, breaking down tasks into smaller components, and receiving feedback on performance in order to continuously improve
122
What is the reality of chess player's exceptional memory?
Patterns that are recognised are meaningful, that is, it is mentally represented
123
What is the "gold standard" for measuring expertise?
The gold standard for measuring expertise is performance in real-world situations, rather than in controlled laboratory settings.
124
What is deliberate practice?
Deliberate practice is a purposeful and structured practice that focuses on improving specific aspects of performance, with the goal of achieving expert-level performance.
125
True or false: Brain training does not enhance memory in the older population
False, it does enhance memory in the older population
126
What are some of the limitations Daniel J. Simons found of the RCTs of brain training games?
They used small and non-representative samples, they had inadequate control groups, and they nitpicked and selectively reported outcomes
127
What is Brain Training?
Training a series of regular mental activities designed to improve cognitive abilities
128
What are the challenges in the development of artificial intelligence?
The development of artificial intelligence has challenges in data privacy and security, ethics and law.
129
True or false? Mental representations are only the result of learning a skill, they cannot help us learn new information.
FALSE
130
What does 'domain specific' mean?
'Domain specific' means mental representations only apply to the skill for which they were developed.
131
True or false: Experts rely solely on rote memorization to recall information.
FALSE. Experts use mental representations to organize information, making it easier to retrieve and apply.
132
How do experts remember patterns better as compared to everyone else?
They have preexisting patterns of information held in their long-term memory that can be used to respond effectively and quickly in certain types of situations.
133
What were the results of Daniel J. Simon’s systematic review of brain training programs?
Practice and learning often resulted in better outcomes in the brain training programs, with narrow to limited transfer of cognitive benefits. There was no objective real world improvements, they did not stave off cognitive aging, and many had inaccurate marketing
134
What technique did chess grandmaster Patrick Wolff say he used to try and remeber the position of the chess pieces in the first set-up he was presented with (the set up that mimicked a typical game set-up)?
Chunking.
135
What is a mental representation?
A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
136
Why is feedback important in the learning process?
It can help individuals to identify and correct errors in their mental representations, leading to more accurate and effective performance.
137
According to the video "Do brain training games work?" by Daniel Simons, what did he report were common shortcomings of the RCT's included as evidence for braining trainings effectiveness?
1. Small or non-representative samples 2. Inadequate control group 3. Selective reporting of outcomes 4. Missing of critical tests 5. Opaque publishing practices
138
What is the gold standard of practice, as discussed by Ericsson and Pool?
he gold standard of practice, also known as deliberate practice, is a highly structured approach to skill development that involves setting specific goals, obtaining immediate feedback, and repetitively practicing to address weaknesses and refine performance. This focused, systematic practice is considered the most effective way to achieve expertise in a particular field.
139
Why might a researcher selectively report outcomes in an RCT?
Selective reporting of outcomes means that a researcher will only choose to include variables and results that are interesting, positive or confirm their hypotheses. This benefits the researcher in getting published and being known for more "interesting" studies.
140
What is the role of mental representations in developing expertise?
Mental representations play a crucial role in developing expertise by helping us understand and process information. Experts have a more extensive and well-developed set of mental representations than non-experts.
141
What is the "Gold Standard" of expertise? a. Reaching a level of proficiency that is unmatched by anyone else in the field. b. Consistently achieving peak performance in a specific task or activity. c. Demonstrating a deep understanding of the principles and concepts underlying a field or domain. d. Being recognized by others in the field as a leader or expert
c. The "Gold Standard" of expertise is demonstrating a deep understanding of the principles and concepts underlying a field or domain. It involves being able to think critically, solve problems creatively, and make connections between different pieces of information in order to develop a comprehensive understanding of the domain
142
In the mental representations in learning, what were the benefits of having a mental representation when playing an instrument?
It allowed for less mistakes, the mental representation that the saxophone player allowed both to know it sounded wrong but the fingering also felt wrong. It also allows for more suitable practicing techniques and self monitoring as they practiced and mistake finding.
143
One brain training study claimed that training reduced at-fault crash rates by 50%. What's wrong with this claim?
It neglects to mention the effect in the context of total crash rates (i.e., including not-at-fault crashes), which obscures that the effect may not actually prevent you crashing more often.
144
What is the EAST Framework and how can it be used in nudging?
The EAST Framework is a behavioral science framework that stands for Easy, Attractive, Social, and Timely. It can be used in nudging to design interventions that make desirable behaviors easy to do, visually appealing, socially normative, and timely to implement.
145
What is the role of feedback in deliberate practice?
Feedback is a crucial component of deliberate practice as it helps individuals to identify their weaknesses and adjust their approach accordingly. Through feedback, individuals can refine their mental representations and improve their performance.
146
What was the general advice Daniel gave at the end when looking at studies
Instead of looking at the volume of studies being done, we need to scrutinise and critically analyse each of them, their methods, analysis and results.
147
what is a "domain specific" mental representation?
a mental representation that is only applied to the skill that it was developed for
148
Describe a characteristic of deliberate practices?
Deliberate practices involve feedback and modification of efforts in response to the feedback
149
These are some of the main issues in the research on evidence around brain training programs, except … a. Non-representative samples; b. Inadequate control groups; c. Usage of random assignment; d. Selective reporting of outcomes
c. Usage of random assignment
150
Narrow Transfer
If you practice one working memory task you might get better at that same task with slightly different materials or at very closely related tasks
151
What is the role of deliberate practice in expertise?
Deliberate practice is essential for developing expertise, as it involves focusing on specific areas of weakness and working to improve them over time.
152
A person's predisposition to solve a given problem in a specific manner even though better or more appropriate methods of solving the problem exist. When presented with a problem, experts can often be lured into engaging in nonoptimal but familiar solutions instead of novel, more efficient solutions. Leads tp a negative effect of previous experience when solving new problems.
Einstellung effect
153
explain how planning plays an important part in forming mental representations.
planning can help create more accurate mental representations, which can help individuals consider all the variables of embarking on a task.
154
What is the core promise of brain training programs?
The core promise of brain training programs is that by improving an underlying cognitive capacity, such as working memory, anything that relies on that skill in principle could be improved.
155
Give one example of an issue that the authors of "Peak" raise with Malcolm Gladwell's number of 10,000 hours for mastery of a skill.
'- The number of 10,000 is inaccurate and was seemingly chosen for aesthetic reasons. - The Number varies from field to field. - Does not distinguish between deliberate practice and other activities that might be considered "practice" (see performing) - 10,000 hours does not guarantee mastery in a field (not explicitly mentioned by Gladwell but interpreted by many to mean this)
156
In the video "Memory for chess positions," grandmaster Patrick Wolff demonstrates his ability to recall a complex chess position after seeing it for only a few __________.
Seconds
157
True or false: According to Daniel Simons, 'Brain Training' programs not only improve performance on specific tasks, but this also translates into overall cognitive improvement and general intelligence.
False - The brain training programs may improve performance on specific tasks, but they do not necessarily translate into overall cognitive improvement or general intelligence.
158
True or False: Studies promoting brain training programs often suffer from methodological issues such as small sample sizes and lack of control groups.
True. Many studies promoting brain training programs suffer from methodological issues that can undermine their validity, such as small sample sizes and lack of control groups.
159
Determining true or false: In remembering the positions of randomly arranged pieces on the board (arrangements without any chess meaning), chess masters perform significantly better than novices.
False. The advantage of experienced players is reflected in the correlated board memory, i.e. when the pieces on the board are arranged in a real chess game pattern, chess masters can quickly remember and recover most of the pieces (two thirds of the pieces after five seconds of learning), while novices can only remember about a quarter of the pieces.
160
The main scientific evidence used by companies to back up brain training programs is…
Neuroplasticity
161
When Wolf made an error in the replication of a chess play, was it a critical error that would have affected the game or was it an error with a piece that would not have affected the outcome of the game?
His errors were small, with unimportant pieces that would not have affected the change.
162
(True/False) deliberate practices produces but does not depends on effective mental representations
FALSE
163
What was the key difference found that separated the good, better and best violinists? This was mirrored in ballet dancers.
The best performers had spent more time on average practicing throughout their life than the better performers, and the better had spent more time practicing than the good.
164
What is chunking in the context of memory for chess positions?
Grouping pieces of information together to facilitate encoding and retrieval.
165
There has been quite a bit of research into the representations people use when writing, and the research has demonstrated a profound difference between the methods used by expert writers and those used by novices. For example, the answer that a sixth-grader offered when asked about the strategy he used in writing an essay is completely another way.This phenomenon is an example of which topic? A,Planning B,Making sense of information C,Finding an answer
A,Planning
166
How does domain specific mental representations relate to expert performance
There is no such thing as developing a general skill (for example, you cannot train to be a general athlete but you would train for a specific sport)
167
What were the short comings of the papers and studies written about the benefits of braining training, highlighted in the "does braining training work" video.
Small samples Inadequate control group Selective reporting of outcomes Missing critical tests Opaque publishing practices
168
True or False: To date there is no evidence that brain training programs have a significant effect on learning and transfer broadly
True: After complying a systematic review of over a hundred studies, the authors of "Do 'Brain Training' Programs Work?" concluded the evidence was inconclusive/non-sufficient
169
What was the consensus on the brain training industry from the scientific community?
That there was little evidence to suggest that playing brain games improves underlying broad cognitive abilities, or that it enables one to better navigate a complex realm of everyday life.
170
True or False, Mental representations are formed through random practice.
FALSE
171
In Simons et al. (2016), did the researchers find that brain training games could lead to broad transfer?
No, the researchers essentially found no evidence for objective improvements in real-world measures of behaviour / outcomes.
172
How can mental representations be used to improve performance in fields such as music or athletics? A) By allowing individuals to visualize and mentally rehearse complex movements or sequences of actions B) By providing a way to break down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable parts C) By creating a mental map of the task or domain being learned D) All of the above
D) All of the above
173
What is the historical parallel that can be drawn with the brain training industry?
The historical parallel that can be drawn with the brain training industry is the heyday of the patent medicine era, where cures were not regulated in any form, and a simple thing or magic bullet could help people with all sorts of diseases. The appeal of a magic bullet parallels the idea that brain training programs can take one thing and have it improve all sorts of other things.
174
When testing soccer player's ability to predict what's coming next on a soccer field, what was discovered in Erricson and Pool's book (Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise, Chapter 3)?
It was discovered that better soccer players had a more highly-developed ability to interpret patterns.
175
True or False Physical activity is not related to mental representations and cognitive capacity
False Physical activity requires mental representation to be carried out
176
What did the results of a systematic review on brain training programs show? A) NO "narrow transfer" of knowledge, but evidence of "broad transfer", B) evidence for "narrow transfer", but NOT "broad transfer", C) Evidence of both; narrow AND broad transfer.
B) narrow transfer, but not broad transfer of knowledge was evident in the results of the review.
177
What are some of the common shortcomings of RCTs cited as evidence supporting brain training?
They commonly have: Small samples Samples that have certain mental conditions and don't represent the general population Inadequate control group, not matched Selective reporting of outcomes
178
What is a mental representation?
A mental structure that is similar to that of an object or something that can be concrete or abstract that is being thought about by the brain. Eg visual image.
179
True or false?: Does Brain training help you academically, socially, and professionally?
TRUE
180
True or False. Mental representations are innate abilities that individuals are born with.
False. Mental representations are developed over time through years of practice and experience in a particular domain.
181
In what ways does deliberate practice aid in performance on representative tasks that capture the essence of expertise in a particular domain?
Deliberate practice are activities with the specific aim of improving current levels of performance. Superior performers do not automate relevant aspects of their performance and strive to increase their control of it. This control, or rather the ability to monitor and adapt their performance, derives directly from deliberate practice activities that focus on improvement that continuously push them out of their comfort zone.
182
True or False - Purposeful practise is another term for deliberate practise.
False. Deliberate practise is different from purposeful practise in that it is also INFORMED.
183
True or False: The book "Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise" argues that deliberate practice is essential to developing expertise in any domain.
True. The book argues that deliberate practice, which involves setting specific goals, receiving feedback, and making constant adjustments, is essential to developing expertise in any domain. The authors use examples from a variety of fields, such as music, sports, and chess, to demonstrate how deliberate practice can help individuals reach expert-level performance.
184
According to "Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise," what traits characterise deliberate practice? a) Setting vague and general goals b) Practicing only in areas of expertise c) Avoiding feedback and self-evaluation d) Involves feedback and modification of efforts in response to that feedback
Answer: d) Involves feedback and modification of efforts in response to that feedback
185
Finish this sentence: A key factor on the success of distinguishing chess piece positions when the board is randomised or not is…
Mental representations.
186
Steve Faloon developed increasingly complicated methods to mentally encode long sequences of digits while training to increase his capacity to remember long strings of digits.That's the process of creating________.
mental representations
187
True or False, Deliberate practice involves a focus on specific aspects of performance, immediate feedback, and the setting of challenging goals.
TRUE
188
What are mental representations?
Mental representations are internal models that experts use to organize, understand, and solve problems in their domain.
189
The hierarchical structure of chunks are analogous to...?
Business organisation structures. Individuals are organised into teams, which are organised into units, into departments, and so on
190
During the memory test for chess positions featuring Patrick Wolff, how accurate were Wolff's reconstructions of the chess cards he was shown?
Wolff's memory was nearly perfect, where his rare errors were mostly on pieces that were unimportant for what was happening in the game.
191
Is there strong scientific evidence supporting brain training programs?
The talk discusses how there is limited scientific evidence supporting brain training programs.
192
Explain in brief detail the idea of mental representation that is “domain specific”?
Mental representation is “domain specific” as they apply only to the skill for which they were developed. In other words, the mental representations that individuals develop are often tied to the specific skills that they have expertise in. These representations are optimized for the specific demands of those domains and may not be applicable to use in other domains. For instance, the mental representations that divers had will be useless for basketball.
193
What are mental representations?
Cognitive structures that individuals develop to understand and process information in a particular domain.
194
True or False: Dan Simons' talk suggests that brain training programs are often overhyped and lack evidence to support their claims.
True. In his talk, Dan Simons critically evaluates various studies on brain training programs and concludes that their benefits are often overstated. He argues that there is little evidence to support the claims made by brain training programs, and urges people to be cautious of their promises.
195
What are the seven traits that characterize deliberate practice as outlined by Ericsson & Pool?
Deliberate practice (1) develops new skills, (2) takes place outside of one's comfort zone, (3) involves well-defined and specific goals, (4) requires one's full attention, (5) involves feedback and modification, (6) produces and depends on effective mental representations, (7) and nearly always involves building or modifying previously acquired skills.
196
How can expert performance be measured?
This can be measured through accuracy, efficiency, consistency of results and quality/competence
197
Do brain training programs work for narrow transfer?
Yes - there is evidence that indicates that when you train in a task you will get better in that task or something very similar to it.
198
In the speech/talk given by Daniel J Simons "Do brain training programs work?", why is brain training considered the holy grail of training?
By practising improving an underlying cognitive capacity that applies to a range of different settings, anything that relies on that setting therefore can be improved
199
Why was the claim of an additional 22 feet of stopping distance in the driving simulation dubious?
Because the authors assumed that an improvement of 277 ms reaction time on a computer would directly translate into the real world. This contrasts with other evidence which suggests that reaction time is unrelated to stopping time in older adults as they keep larger distances between themselves and the cars ahead regardless.
200
_______refers to the internal cognitive structures that individuals use to represent and process information about a domain, such as chess or music.
Mental representations
201
What is the "Gold Standard" method of deliberate practice? A) Repeating a task over and over until it becomes second nature B) Working with a coach or mentor who provides feedback and guidance C) Focusing on areas of weakness or difficulty in order to improve overall performance D) The skills required in these fields are primarily physical, rather than mental
D) The skills required in these fields are primarily physical, rather than mental
202
Fill in the blank: Mental representations are built through _____ and _____.
Experience and Practice. Mental representations are built through experience and practice.
203
Will artificial intelligence replace human work?
Artificial intelligence will replace human work to a certain extent, but it will also create new jobs.
204
n chapter 3 of "Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise," the authors discuss the importance of mental representations in developing expertise. Can you explain the concept of mental representations and provide examples of how they are used in various domains, such as sports or music?
Mental representations are mental models or frameworks of information that people develop as they learn and practice a particular skill or domain. They allow individuals to organize information in a meaningful way, making it easier to recall and use when needed. In sports, mental representations might include visualizing a specific shot or move, while in music, they might involve hearing a melody in one's head before playing it on an instrument. Mental representations are essential for developing expertise because they allow individuals to process and interpret information quickly and accurately, leading to more efficient and effective performance.
205
What is the most important predictor in chess player ability? a) whether their parents were good at chess b) the amount of hours they have spent playing chess with others c) the time spent analysing the chess games of experts d) their IQ
c) the time spent analysing the chess games of experts
206
How well did Patrick Wolff, a grandmaster chess player, perform at recalling a random arrangement of chess pieces on a chessboard?
Wolff's expertise was of little help when pieces placed on the board randomly.
207
Feng's method of encoding digits is based on some of the well-known techniques, such as the __________ palace.
Answer: Memory
208
What is the impact of increasing understanding on information aquisition?
An increase in understanding of the subject in question will improve the ease at which new information can be aquired and retained
209
In "Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise," the authors argue that the gold standard for measuring expertise is performance in real-world contexts. How do they define real-world performance, and what are some of the challenges associated with using this approach to assess expertise?
According to the authors, real-world performance is the gold standard for measuring expertise because it reflects an individual's ability to perform in a specific context, under real-world conditions. This approach is more reliable and valid than using standardized tests or other forms of assessment because it provides a more accurate measure of an individual's skills and knowledge. However, there are challenges associated with using this approach, such as the variability of real-world contexts and the difficulty of controlling for external factors that may impact performance. Additionally, real-world performance may not be feasible or ethical to measure in certain domains, such as medicine or law.
210
True or false? Expert chess players can recall random placement of chess pieces on a board far better than novices.
False. Expert chess players can recall non-random placement of chess pieces (i.e. when the pieces represent game play) on a board far better than novices.
211
Q: According to Ericsson and Pool, what is the gold standard of expertise? A) Natural talent B) Innate ability C) High intelligence D) Deliberate practice
D) Deliberate practice
212
What a possible alternative for the headline "Training reduced at fault crashed by 50%." and what does it show
"Speed training more than doubles your risk of at-fault accidents." and Noice Mining
213
What is the "gold standard" for measuring expertise?
The "gold standard" is for measuring expertise in expert performance by comparing an individual's performance to that of a expert in the field or domain
214
True or False: The more you study a subject, the less likely you are to assimilate new information about it.
Answer: False. The given information states that the more you study a subject, the more detailed your mental representations of it become, and the better you get at assimilating new information.
215
Explain why Patrick Wolff was so easily able to memorize positions taken from real chess games.
Because, to him, the board make logical sense, mistakes he made placing pieces were unimportant to the overall position.
216
True or False: Brain training programs have consistently demonstrated long-term cognitive improvements.
False
217
T/F Deliberate practice is the same as regular practice.
Answer: False. Explanation: In Chapter 4 of "Peak," the authors distinguish between deliberate practice and regular practice. Deliberate practice is a specific type of practice focused on improving performance through well-defined goals, immediate feedback, and continuous refinement of techniques. It involves stepping out of one's comfort zone and working on areas of weakness. Regular practice, on the other hand, may involve repeating a skill without a clear focus on improvement or incorporating feedback. Deliberate practice is considered the "gold standard" for developing expertise.
218
True or False: The systematic review 'Do "Brain Training" Programs Work?' found evidence of broad transfer.
False: There was no evidence of broad transfer. There was only evidence of narrow transfer, meaning if someone practiced a memory task they would only get better at similar memory tasks and this improvement would not transfer to other tasks e.g., speeded processing
219
True or false. Brain training exercises have been proven to generalize to improving cognition in everyday life
FALSE
220
TRUE/FALSE In their study of deliberate practice in violin students, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer found that some students were more motivated to engage in solitary practice because they derived satisfaction and enjoyment from it.
FALSE: They found that although all students identified solitary practice as vital for improvement, they all viewed it as labor-intensive and not much fun. They were motivated to practice intensely because they understood that practice was essential improving performance.
221
What is meant by domain specific in terms of mental representation?
That they apply only for the skill that there were developed for. Examples given were such as you can train to remember a string of letter but this doers not make you better at remembering any/all strings of letters.
222
True or false? The systematic review of studies on brain-training by Dan Simons and colleagues found that practice led to improvement on certain tasks
True. Practice on brain-training tasks showed an improvement on doing those tasks or very similar tasks.
223
What is the core idea of brain training?
By practising one thing, you can get better at lots of other things.
224
True or False: Brain training has been shown to improve broad transfer.
False. Brain training may improve narrow transfer, which is when the skills of a brain training task transfer to another game that varies very slightly. Improvements in brain training cannot claim to transfer to broad real-world cognitive tasks.
225
What are the patterns recognised by grandmasters known as?
Chunk
226
What is the gold standard of expertise?
The gold standard of expertise is the ability to consistently perform at an elite level over time.
227
T/F Mental representations can be improved through deliberate practice.
Answer: True. Explanation: In Chapters 3 and 4 of "Peak," Ericsson and Pool discuss the importance of mental representations and how they can be improved through deliberate practice. As individuals engage in deliberate practice, they refine and expand their mental representations, which in turn allows them to process and interpret information more efficiently. This improvement in mental representations enables individuals to perform better in their domain of expertise and continue to develop their skills.
228
What type of representation would replying on photographic memory be?
bottom-level representation
229
What is the "gold standard" described in Chapter 4 of "Peak?" A) The highest level of expertise in a particular skill or domain B) The most effective method of training for skill acquisition C) The ideal measure of skill mastery and proficiency D) The best way to achieve peak performance in any field
C) The ideal measure of skill mastery and proficiency
230
True or False? Grandmaster chess players are able to retain more of the pieces’ positions than a novice when seeing them for a few seconds, even if the pieces are arranged in a random way that doesn’t respect the rules of playing.
False. They did just as bad as the novice and the intermediate players because in that case they are unable to make sense of the chessboard, i.e. to link their immediate perception to any of the hundreds of thousands of patterns (or mental representations) they have memorized through deliberate practice.
231
What is the application prospect of artificial intelligence in the future?
Artificial intelligence has a wide range of application prospects in the future, including autonomous driving, smart home, medical diagnosis, intelligent customer service and other fields.
232
True or false. In the ‘Memory for Chess Positions’ video, grandmaster Patrick Wolff could recall both real and random chess positions.
False! Although grandmaster Patrick Wolff could recall real chess positions nearly perfectly, they could not recall random positions.
233
The "gold standard" for expertise is a measure of performance in a specific domain that is both objective and __________.
The "gold standard" for expertise is a measure of performance in a specific domain that is both objective and reliable.
234
What is transfer, and why is it important in the development of expertise? A) Transfer refers to the ability to apply skills and knowledge learned in one context to another context B) Transfer is not important in the development of expertise C) Transfer is the process of breaking down complex tasks into smaller parts D) Transfer is the ability to memorize and recall large amounts of information quickly
A) Transfer refers to the ability to apply skills and knowledge learned in one context to another context
235
Explain what is meant by being "domain specific"
When mental representations only apply to the skill for which they were developed
236
A key factor of deliberate practice that distinguishes it from other forms of purposeful practice is that it is both purposeful and ____
informed. In particular, deliberate practice is informed and guided by the best performers’ accomplishments and their understanding of what is needed to excel.
237
What were the shortcomings of the papers utilised by the brain training programs?
'- Small or non-representative samples - Inadequate control groups - Selective reporting of outcomes leading to publication bias - Opaque publishing practices
238
___ is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
Mental representations
239
Explain what is a Mental Representation?
A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about for example a visual image that someone 'sees' when a topic such as the Eiffel Tower is mentioned.
240
What is the difference between remembering a chess position that could arise from a real game versus a randomly generated position, and how do chess experts approach each of these tasks?
Chess experts perform better at remembering chess positions that could arise from a real game because they can quickly recognize familiar patterns and structures in the position. They may struggle with randomly generated positions because they don't conform to typical patterns and require more cognitive effort to encode and recall.
241
What are mental representations in the context of skills?
Mental representations are an individual's internal model of how to preform a skill, these are formed over years of deliberate practice.
242
Fill in the blank: Chessmaster Patrick Wolff struggled to recall chess positions when the position was __________
Randomised. Wolff struggled to recall random positions because they had no relevance to a winning position.
243
True or False. Mental representations are the same for all experts in a particular domain.
False. Mental representations are tailored to an individual's specific area of expertise and can differ significantly between experts in the same domain.
244
True or False: Deliberate practice refers to a type of focused and structured training that involves systematically improving specific aspects of one's performance through feedback, repetition, and problem-solving.
TRUE
245
What are the two ways in which deliberate practice is different from purposeful practice?
The two ways are (1) Deliberate practice requires a field that is already well-developed, and (2) It requires a teacher to help students improve their performance
246
What is a mental representation?
A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
247
True/False Brain-training claims assume that practice only improves performance on the practiced tasks.
FALSE
248
What is mental representation?
A mental representation is a mental model or image that an individual creates in their mind to understand and navigate a particular domain or skill.
249
The way that grandmasters of chess process and make sense of chess positions is an example of m----- r--------------
mental representations
250
Fill in the missing words - In the context of brain training programs, (BLANK) refers to the improvement in cognitive abilities beyond the specific tasks practiced within the program.
transfer
251
what is Horner's syndrome cased by
it is caused by damage to a nerve that runs behind the eye
252
Results of the systematic review showed that: A – Stave off cognitive aging B – Broad Transfer C – Objective real-world improvements D – Learning effects
Answer D – Learning effects
253
What are mental representations?
Mental Representations are mental structures that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.
254
True or False - expertise can be developed by talent alone, people without natural talent have limitations in achieving it.
False though deliberate practice, individuals can overcome natural talent limitations and achieve expertise.
255
What is the "chunking" technique, and how does it relate to the development of expertise?
Chunking is a memory technique that involves grouping information into meaningful patterns, or "chunks," which can then be stored and retrieved more easily. This technique is used by experts in various domains to increase the amount of information they can hold in their working memory.
