COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT Flashcards

Question

What was Piaget’s conservation task?

Answer 1

Did different types eg: volume, number, mass... 1)Number- basic mathematic understanding that quantity remains constant even if appearance of object changes -places 2 rows of counters close together -when two rows identical (side by side) correctly reasoned that each die of counters had same number -pre-operational children when one row spaced out they struggled to conserve and said there were fewer counters. In reality just spaced out so looked longer Also did with liquids: - 2 identical containers- A +B placed side by side with the contents at the same height, most children spotted that they contained the same volume of liquid - however, if the liquid B was poured into a taller, thinner vessel (c), younger children typically believe there was more liquid in the taller vessel

Answer 2

- Piaget and inhelder (1956): - showed how egocentrism worked in the 3 mountains task - children were shown a model of 3 mountains, each with a different feature- cross, house, snow... - a doll was placed at the side of the model so that it faced the scene from a different angle from the child - the child was asked to choose what the doll would ‘see’ from a range of pictures - pre-operational children tended to find this difficult and chose the picture that matched the scene from their own point of view - egocentrism was demonstrated- only could see world from own point of view

Answer 3

EVALUATION BOOKLET! 👀

Answer 4

✅Plowden Report (1967)- primary education: - massive reform in primary education no longer just old fashioned chalk board - empathised exploratory learning - content matching intellectual tags as won’t yet have biological maturity for some concepts - age appropriate classes and academic years eg: difficult to teach a pre-operational child mathematical calculations if not mature enough may acquire superficially big in order to truly understand and become competent need to wait until ready ❌Cultural bias: - Piaget placed a lot of value on the role of logical operations in the development of thinking - may be because some from middle class European background and study used children from european academic families who valued academic abilities - problem as it may not be universally applicable - For example: - in some cultures and social classes more emphasis may be placed on concrete operations making things rather than about abstract ideas - this means that Piaget’s intellectual stages of development may not be useful to explain maturation in all cultures - imposed etic and ethnocentrism

Answer 5

Vygotsky agreed that there is a qualitative difference in children’s cognition as they grow, however he believe that the main reason for this was culture. Vygotsky argued that influences within our CULTURE are key driving force for the development of cognition, and that ability is a result of social contexts.

Answer 6

1)Elementary functions (innate/ biological eg: perception and memory) ⬇️ 2)Cultural Influence ⬇️ 3)Higher mental functions eg: mathematical ability

Answer 7

-Also known as more knowledgeable others (MKO) - These people are known as ‘experts’ of their knowledge of something is greater than your own - suggests that children constantly learning from other people in our environment - as a child this is usually parents, teachers, older siblings...

Answer 8

The language or ‘semiotics’ involved in communication allow children to develop intellectually. Dialogue between parent and child (pre-intellectual speech) start off the basis of learning, and as children develop and grow, they learn internal dialogue to discuss with themselves in order to resolve problems Eg: of reading a child a story may... - emphasise words - point to pictures - be exclamatory

Answer 9

- intellect does develop as we grow but due to culture (therefore allows for the fact that will learn differently in different cultures) - result of social contexts - Element and higher mental functions= innate/ biological eg: perception and memory which is influenced by culture and leads to more complex mental functions eg: mathematics - role of experts and language- assist in learning, starts off basic and gradually more complex

Answer 10

- the zone of proximal development focuses in on a ‘zone’ in which a child can learn information - this child can do all of the tasks in the centre, but the child can not reach the outer layer as it is beyond that child’s ability - however, the middle ring is the ZPD which suggests a child is able to learn in this ‘zone’ with a little help and guidance (scaffolding) when needed

Answer 11

- ZPD: - ‘zone’ in which a child can learn in - can do all tasks in centre but cannot reach outer layer as beyond child’s ability - middle- ZPD-able to learn if this ‘zone’ with a little help and guidance (scaffolding) when needed - Scaffolding: 1) Demonstrations eg: mother draws with crayon 2) Preparation for child- helps them hold crayon 3) Indication of materials- pointing 4) Specific verbal instructions- ‘How about the green crayon’ 5) General prompts- ‘draw something else’

Answer 12

1) ZPD-The region between a child’s ‘current’ abilities and tasks they cannot perform 2) Scaffolding- an approche to instructing a learner by supporting them only when really necessary 3) Higher mental functions-functions such mathematical ability and logic 4) Role of experts-people who are better or more capable of doing a task and can assist a child in learning a skill 5) Elementary functions- functions such as perception and memory 6) The role of language- the way in which we communicate will influence the learning process. Children over time develop the ability to use internal dialogue to help solve problems.

Answer 13

LOOK IN BOOKLET 👀-MORE! SIMILARITIES: 1) both believe we start with a basic cognition, Piaget= schema and v= elementary functions 2) both emphasise nature and nurture 3) Agree that some behaviours are not accessible at all stages/ only at certain ages DIFFERENCES: 1) Piaget- self discovery is crucial where as V=learning dine by being taught through language and MKO- need instruction and guidance 2) Piaget- only learn when ready where as V= accelerated to an extent with scaffolding and with the ZPD 3) Piaget- same universally (has cultural bias) where as V= different across cultures

Answer 14

✅Real world application: - children can learn faster and more with appropriate scaffolding- raises expectations and new types of learning - group work, peer tutoring, individual assistance from teachers (1 to 1) and teaching assistants- used to scaffold and effective - Van Kerr and Vergaeghe (2005): - Found 7 year olds tutored by 10 year olds in addition to whole class teaching progressed further in reading than controls that just had whole class teaching - Alborz et al (2009): - concluded that teaching assistances are very effective - real-world settings- useful

Answer 15

✅Supports idea of ZPD and gap: - Roazzi and Bryant (1998): - gave children aged 4-5 task of estimating number of sweets in box - 2 conditions 1) Children worked alone 2) Worked with help of an older child - found that when had help of an older child who offered prompts pointing to the right direct at how to arrive at estimate had better estimations and younger child mastered the task quicker. Where as the child that worked alone failed to give a good estimate - suggests is a valid concept ✅Support for scaffolding: - Level or help given by expert partner declines during the process of learning as predicted by principle of scaffolding - Conner and cross (2003): - used longitudinal procedures to follow up 45 children - observed in problem-solving tasks with help of mothers at 16,26,44,54 months - distinctive changes observed over time-mothers- used less and less direct intervention- hunts and prompts as gained experience. Also only offered help when needed rather than constantly - therefore, valid support for scaffolding which demonstrated adult assistance in child’s learning is needed but over time decreases

Answer 16

- may not be universal - Liu and Matthews (2005): - point out that in China classes of up to 50 children learn very effectively in lecture style classrooms- very few interactions with peers or tutors- not entirely correct- overestimated the importance of scaffolding in learning Little research support: - little compared to Piaget - doesn’t lend itself as readily to experimentation due to the concepts being difficult to operationalise - Howe et al (1992): - children learning actually varies considerably between individuals, even in group learning situations- not necessarily better off - this is because although interaction with a more experienced other can enhance learning you would expect children learning together to pick up very similar skills and mental representations of material - therefore may have overplayed the importance of social environment and influence or culture and ignored biological aspects

Answer 17

👀 Created an evaluation summary booklet with more studies and evaluation points!!

Answer 18

- violation of expectation= an approach to investigating how infants understand the world. If a child understands how the physical world operates they will have expectations about a situation. If these expectations are not met children will react accordingly (eg: surprised) - in summary it is the idea that something deliberately goes against a babies expectations. Therefore creating surprise. - Baillargeon was building on the foundations of Piaget especially in regard to object permanence (thought not 8 months, criticised his method- flawed, method doesn’t work for small babies). Baillargeon thought that object permanence was present earlier than expected, physical knowledge more sophisticated then first thought

Answer 19

👶AIM= to test to see if violation of expectation occurs in earlier months than that of Piaget’s suggested 8-9 months for object permanence. 👧METHOD= 24 infants aged 5-6 months shown ‘possible’ and ‘impossible’ events. A tall bunny rabbit or a short bunny rabbit passing behind a screen with a window 👶RESULTS= 33.07 secs looking at impossible event compared to 25.22 secs in the possible condition (8secs longer). Interpreted a ‘surprise’ if they looked longer 👧CONCLUSION= demonstrates an understanding of object permanence at an earlier age (5-6 months). Age appropriate, Piaget-not, reason failed

Answer 20

- suggests that we are born with an innate ‘physical reasoning system’ (PRS). - primitive understanding of physical properties of the world - we are able to develop more detailed understanding over time through experience - from birth have understanding of ‘object persistance’ (objects exist and do not alter structure)- same form - infants identify ‘event categories’ very early on in life, such as occlusion (blocking one object from view with another) - therefore, 5-6 months old they have a very good understanding DIAGRAM OF RABBIT STUDY IN BOOK!!🐰

Answer 21

-they did a familiarisation event just with boxes- no gap to get child used to it 🐰

Answer 22

-violation of expectation 😮

Answer 23

-rabbit 🐰

Answer 24

-object permanence 📦

Answer 25

-physical reasoning system 🧠

Answer 26

-occulusion 🚦

Answer 27

-knowledge of the physical world 🌍

Answer 28

🌜🌛SIMILARITIES: - basic reasoning systems- innate - both under age of 1 - emphasis on experience, B= improved with experience, P= develops over time - Both lab experiments 🌝🌚DIFFERENCES: - Piaget- stages - methodology- B= violation of expectation- variations- rabbit, car... repetitions and double blind, more controls. P= simpler-hiding under blanket, only one - Piaget= 8 months, B= 5-6 months- good understanding and born with

Answer 29

✅carefully controlled research: - Piaget= all participants we’re middle class children - Baillargeon used a range of controls... a) Infant on parent’s lap, parent asked to keep eyes shut and not interact b) observer’s knowledge of conditions (double blind) c) sample- birth announcements in local paper - good validity especially population validity and internal validity ✅Universal understanding - Hespos + Van Marle (2012): - all basic understanding of physical world regardless of cultural and personal experience eg: drop key will fall to ground - suggests physical reasoning system is correct- innate otherwise would expect differences - more representative - does not require past experience or a culture that uses keys - good validity and generalisability

Answer 30

❌One weakness of Baillargeon’s explanation of early infant abilities is the methodology of violation of expectation - Smith (1999): - asked whether the VOE method actually measures what it intends to ie: whether measuring surprise at violation of expectation shows an understanding of object permanence. Infants may look longer at the impossible event not because it violates their understanding of the physical world but because some of the features of the impossible event are more interesting than the possible event. - Schlesinger and Casey (2003): - showed that there was a difference in the infant’s gaze for possible and impossible task but the impossible task was due to greater perceptual interest not because of violation of expectation. This is a weakness challenging the internal validity of Baillargeon’s research. Therefore, her methods may not be that accurate as it’s unclear, whether her method measures what it intends to therefore decreasing the accuracy not just of the method but results. ❌Effect if different experiences: -based on notion innate mechanisms drive development yet not specifically researched the capabilities of very young children who have had different experiences. If research showed differences related to experience may challenge Baillargeon’s approach-may be experience has a greater role on development of mechanisms than Baillargeon first thought Remember to look 👀 at summary and essay plan in booklet!

Answer 31

Social describes the mental processes we use to engage in a social interaction. Our cognition therefore can develop through our interactions with other people.

Answer 32

Piaget came up with the ‘egocentrism’ the idea that it is a child’s tendency to only be able to see the world from their own point of view in physical objects. Selman took this further from ‘physical’ and suggested the ability of ‘perspective taking’ which is our ability to appreciate a social situation from another person’s point of view- viewpoints/ beliefs

Answer 33

AIM= looked at how children’s ability to take on perspective of social roles changes with age. -looked at changes that occurred with age in children’s responses to scenarios in which they were asked to take the role of different people in a social situation ``` PARTICIPANTS= 60 (30 girls, 30 boys), 20 4 year olds (10 boys, girls), 20 5 year olds, 20 6 year olds -middle class American children ``` METHOD= involved asking them how each person felt in various scenarios eg: a child called promised father would no longer climb trees but comes across friend who’s kitten is stuck up a tree. Their task was then to describe and explain how each person (Holly, dad, friend) would feel if Holly did/ did not climb the tree to rescue the kitten. Réponses were judged as a ‘fail’, ‘half pass’, ‘pass’ FINDINGS= A number of distinct levels of perspective taking were identified - level of perspective taking correlated with age- clear developmental sequence - distinct pattern correlated with age, response quality of children was age reflective

Answer 34

- socially egocentric - 3-6 years - Children cannot reliably distinguish between own and others emotions -identify emotions but not what caused them (know crying but not why eg: wouldn’t relate taking someone else’s toy and them then being upset) - very self-centred viewpoint with no consideration for others and their view

Answer 35

- social information role- taking - 6-8 years - can tell difference between own and others view. However, they usually only focus in on ONE of these perspectives - know why cry but still self- centred view eg: “but it was mine turn” - therefore, they believe that people will understand if they have all the information and understands it from her view

Answer 36

- self-reflective role- taking - 8-10 years - at this stage children can take on and completely appreciate another individuals point of view, however they can only take on board one view at a time - eg: dad’s view only- one at a time - can put themselves in someone else’s shoes - can do more- one at a time- bits of a situation but can’t see as whole whole situation and story that interlinks

Answer 37

- Mutual role-taking - 10-12 years - children can look at a situation from their own view and another persons point of view at the same time - detached perspective - can act as an impartial third party- take self out of situation and view objectively - all at same time- interlink

Answer 38

- social and conventional system role-taking - 12+ - children learn that being able to see something from someone else’s perspective is not always enough to reach agreement. Sometimes we require social conventions to keep things in order eg: in politics but different opinion - eg: human treatment of animals- cat 🐱

Answer 39

-agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, criteria, often taking the form of a custom

Answer 40

1) Marton et al (2009): - looked at how perspective taking can be related to ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) children. Their research in 50 8-12 year olds on tasks of perspective taking found that they were significantly poorer than controls at identifying feelings, understanding scenarios and evaluating consequences - weakness: - poor reliability- lack of consistency in research - poor generalisability- incomplete explanation as misses out children with ADHD 2) Wu and Keyser (2007): - found that when conducting perspective taking tasks on young adults, Chinese individuals performed significantly better than matched American participants of the same age - Chinese= collectivist- greater depth on understanding one another Weakness: - poor generalisability- Chinese performed better than American participants and may not be age that’s the variable meaning good perspective taking comes later - poor validity- not universal, shows cultural bias- Imposed etic and ethnocentrism

Answer 41

1)Strength: Gurucharri and Selman (1982): -did follow up longitudinal study and involved 41 boys -none of the children regressed in their ability to understand perspective -all had made improvements and none had skipped stages, which could be linked to Piaget’s stages of development (Keating and Clark (1980)= reason for sequence may be due to fact these stages are closely related to Piaget’s stages of development) - strength- validity (internal)- control individual differences and accuracy of theory as a whole - strength- reliability- supports idea that improved as went through stages- confirmed the progressive developmental sequence in stages of perspective taking 2) Real world applications: - can be fostered by experience - implications for schools, therapy, treatment of criminals - Selman (2013): - facilitation of perspective taking us one of the fundamental missions of primary schools today- woven into daily activities eg: through play- natural perspective- taking skills are learnt (Smith and Pellegrini 2008) -SST (social skills training) programmes are used in older children in therapeutic settings so children with mental disorders or emotional problems learn- usually delayed development - some explain anti-social, criminal behaviour a lack of empathy and perspective taking skills- explains their ‘willingness’ to harm others directly or indirectly - SST programmes developed where prisoners are taught perspective taking skills to increase their empathetic concern for others and pro social behaviour in release from prison -good application

Answer 42

-EVALUATION SUMMARY!! 👀

Answer 43

- ASD stands for Autism Spectrum Disorder and is a lifelong condition which usually presents itself in 2-3 year olds. It involves persistant challenges in social interaction, speech, non-verbal communication and restricted/ repetitive behaviours - it is called a ‘spectrum disorder’ as it differs from person to person in severity and mixture of symptoms, 2 two people with ASD appear or behave in the same way. Symptoms will range from mild to severe and change over time. - variations: 1) Asperger’s syndrome (now ‘High Functioning Autism’)- mild, very intelligent, can handle daily life, obsessed with certain topics, hard time socially eg: can’t understand sarcasm 2) Pervasive Developmental Disorder- more severe than Asperger’s but not as extreme as autistic disorder, some but not all characteristics of Autism, delay in socialisation and communication skills 3) Autistic Disorder- (classical) same symptoms as PDD but at a more intense level 4) Childhood disintegrative Disorder- rarest and most severe part of spectrum. Develop normally and then quickly loss many social, language and mental skills. Between ages 2 + 4, commonly develop seizure disorder Main characteristics in all ASD: - Social communication impairments eg: trouble understanding tone of voice or facial expressions - speech/ language impairments eg: may need alternative communication like sign language, use of idiosyncratic speech, abnormal use of pitch, intonation, rhythm or stress - Restrictive, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities eg: echolalia (parroting of heard words), ritualised patterns of behaviour, excessive adherence to routines, highly fixated interests - executive function impairments eg: sequencing order to dress themselves, inflexible thinking - learning characteristics- use of checklists, high achieving in certain areas

Answer 44

-our personal understanding (theory) of what other people are thinking or feeling. Sometimes referred to as ‘mind-reading’

Answer 45

- using a ‘false belief task’- a type of task used in theory of mind that studies a child’s needs to infer that another person does not possess the knowledge that the child possesses - therefore, in most cases a person will have a ‘false’ belief - eg:there is a crayon box filled with candles - ask snoopy what inside (snoopy don’t know about candles) it would be crayons but the children think that snoopy will know candles are in there - false belief- crayons in box, true belief- candles. This shows they think there is no difference in what they think, their beliefs and others. - Know that when children develop neurotypically they realise at about 4 years snoopy will think crayons not candles are in the box-same as adults - therefore, this shows theory of mind to be an innate mechanism to try and know what other people think. - perspective is the umbrella and theory of mind is one section of it

Answer 46

- original false belief task - aim- whether children aged 3-4 years old can understand that people can believe something that is not true, ‘mind- reading’ task - experiment- Maxi left chocolate in blue cupboard, went to playground. Mother used some and put rest in green cupboard - where would Maxi look for the chocolate? - 3 year olds- green cupboard (assume know been moved) - 4 year olds- blue cupboard (correct, where originally left it) - conclusion: - theory of mind becomes more advanced around 4 years

Answer 47

-Intentional Reasoning Task - procedure- observed adults place beads into a jar. - experimental condition- pretended to struggle, beads fell out of jar - control- put beads successfully into the jar - when children tried, BOTH conditions toddlers successfully placed beads in jar- dropped no beads in experimental condition - conclusion: - suggests imitated what adults intended to do than what adults actually did- have simple theory of mind - findings: - 18 months (approx) have an understanding of adult intentions when carrying out simple actions -confounding- May gave seen adults do before/ something similar, may have done task themselves before

Answer 48

- inability to fully empathise - situation- “Sally puts her marble in her basket. When Sally isn’t looking, Anne takes the marble out of the basket and puts it into her box. When Sally comes back, where will she look for the marble?” - used sample of Down Syndrome children, typically developing children and ASD children. 85% controls accurately answered compared to only 20% of ASD

Answer 49

-Down syndrome- also cognitively deficient. Therefore they would be able to test whether it’s just being neurologically different or specific to ASD

Answer 50

-taught social niceties and behaviours, more intelligent can use their logic

Answer 51

- tried to simplify Maxi Task - marble- common children’s toy - Sally and Anne- distinctive characters - No story/ background needed just situation - basket and box are very different objects compared to 2 different coloured cupboards

Answer 52

- Adults can complete the Sally-Anne task with ease. There was argument to suggest the reason why adults could complete Sally-Anne Tasks was because they were basic tasks with little complexity. - Baron-Cohen (1997)- conducted a study using images of eyes to indicate emotions. Participants had to read the emotions correctly from images of eyes. ASD adults performed poorly on this task, which Baron- Cohen used to support the theory that ASD characterised by deficit in theory of mind - Used ASD and control group (non-ASD)

Answer 53

-Research by Baron-Cohen (1985) demonstrated that there is a deficit of theory of mind in people with ASD. This is due to their inability to fully empathise in the Sally-Anne Task. Sally puts her marble in her basket- when she isn’t looking Anne takes the marble out of the basket and puts it in her box. When Sally comes back, where will she look for the marble? 20% of ASD said that she would look in Anne’s box, not recognising that Sally hadn’t realised Anne took the marble. Therefore, they show a lack of theory of mind not understanding how Sally is thinking and her belief about the marble.

Answer 54

1) Social interaction 2) Repetitive behaviour and need for routine 3) Oversensitive- sensory- struggle

Answer 55

❌Hard to distinguish between theory of mind and perspective taking: - methods could be applied to study theory of mind or perspective taking eg:the Sally Anne Task could measure the children’s ability to take Sally’s perspective - Rehfeldt et al (2007): - perspective- taking tasks also distinguish between those with ASD and others - challenges validity of theory of mind research as possibility not measuring what set out to measure- challenges accuracy of theories produced - ability to read mind or take a perspective? ❌Critique or the eyes task: -lacks ecological validity- static pair of eyes in isolation- different to reality life- access to more info

Answer 56

✅Explanation of ASD: - good application - people with ASD have more difficulty than neurotypical - useful in helping us understand the differing experiences of ASD and neurotypical - Baron-Cohen- inability to understand emotions- eyes diagnose ASD-based on these criteria- strong predictor- reason for lack of emotional capacity and imagination- very direct - around us- not penalise- why not progressing- diagnostic criteria - helps to identify atypical and delayed development ✅Supportive evidence: - Wimmer and Perner, Meltzoff- consistency - 4 years - progression as adults - theory of mind- factor in cognition development and social cognition- how develop ability to socialise with others

Answer 57

1) Limitation of theory of mind as an explanation for autism is cause or effect. Children may not fully develop theory of mind because their condition prevents them communicating and engaging with others. Characteristic of autism included abnormal language development. This means they do not have the appropriate experiences that lead to theory of mind rather than a lack of theory of mind, which causes poor social interaction. 2) Only shows that some individuals with autism lack theory of mind. If it was a central aspect of the condition, all participants with autism would be impaired. In Baron Cohen (1985) Sally Anne Task this wasn’t the case- 20% of ASD answering correctly. Therefore it is restricted as an explanation for autism not factoring that it is a spectrum disorders differing from person to person in severity and symptoms. The fact that it is a quasi experiment also means that its based on existing differences between people which the researcher cannot vary- ASD different to others- variations. Therefore, some will be able to an extent understand what other people are thinking better than others. 3) over reliance on false belief task: - FB talks of other cognitive skills besides theory of mind such as memory - failure doesn’t always mean they have no theory of mind- could have poorer memory - lacks validity in explanation as ASD may be due to other cognitive deficit 4) Culturally biased: - All research is British and ASD is mostly a western diagnosis- ethnocentrism and imposed etic - therefore, other people/ cultures might not diagnose them in same way, poor generalisability - doesn’t acknowledge cultural, decreases universality

Answer 58

-our personal understanding (theory) of what other people are thinking and feeling. It is sometimes called mind reading. There are different ways of studying theory of mind depending in the age of the participants that are being studied

Answer 59

-this used in toddlers to test whether they understand the motives behind human behaviour. Meltzoff arranged for 18 month old toddlers to observe adults put beads in a jar. The adult was shown either struggling to put the beads in or were shown dropping the beads in successfully. Meltzoff found toddlers in both conditions placed a similar number of beads into the jar so it showed toddlers imitated what the adult intended to do demonstrating very young children have theory of mind

Answer 60

-another way to test theory of mind is by using false belief tasks. These are usually used with children aged 3-4 years. Research shows that theory of mind shifts and becomes more advanced at about 4 years old.

Answer 61

- studied in older children and in adults by getting them to judged the emotions of people without providing too much information. - researchers use the eyes task which involves a more challenging way of assessing theory of mind by getting people to read complex emotions in pictures of facts where only a small area around the eyes is shown. It was found that adults with a high functioning type of autism called Asperger syndrome struggled with the task. A problem of using static pair of eyes which are in isolation. However, means the task us not the same as what we usually do when ‘reading’ emotions, so means the research lacks ecological validity 👀

Answer 62

- one explanation of the symptoms of autism (such as impairment in social imagination) is because people who have autistic spectrum disorder lack a theory of mind - this research was led by Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frith (1985). They wanted to investigate the differences between children with autism, Down’s syndrome and children without a diagnosis of any disorder. They were given the Sally-Anne test where they were told a story about 2 dolls. Sally puts a marble in her basket. When Sally isn’t looking Anne moved the marble into her box. The children were then asked where Sally will look for her marble because understanding that Sally doesn’t know that Anne has moved the marble requires an understanding of Sally’s false belief a about where it is -it was found 85% of children without any disorder (control group) and 20% of children in the autistic spectrum group knew Sally would look inside her basket for her marble. This shows that there is a theory of mind deficit in people with autistic spectrum disorders

Answer 63

- there a lot of studies which support theory of mind through using false belief tasks which strengthens its validity ✅ - some suggested that research into theory of mind could also be measuring perspective- taking which is an inability to view social situations from another person’s point of view so may not be measuring the key of mind at all. Also it has been found that children can engage in pretend play but not perform well on false belief tasks. Both of these evaluation points therefore question the validity of the research ❌ - finally, it is not known his theory of mind develops, it could develop in the same way as other cognitive abilities like Piaget suggested or we could internalise theory of mind with interactions with adults as Vygotsky suggested so there is a lot more research needed to understand how theory of mind is related to autism ❌

Answer 64

CANCELLED :) 🥳

Answer 65

👀➡️🌍 Selman looked at the way in which we develop in a social world. He researched into how children develop empathy and understanding of others feelings. He called this ability to understand others points of view ‘perspective taking’ . He found this through an experiment with a scenario about Holly, and her tree climbing. Selman then asked the children questions about the scenario and found the responses of children differ based upon age. He suggested that this shows children have different levels of social cognition.

Answer 66

-in GN pg:3 !! :)

COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT Flashcards

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