YEAR 13 RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards

Question

Give some examples of content analysis

Answer 1

1) Furnham and Farragher (2000)- used TV adverts to examine how often men and women are depicted in ‘professional roles’ (at work) or ‘familial roles’ (at home) 2) Matthew et al- analysed 1,200 instances of graffiti gathered from toilet walls in US bars. Coded into categories eg: sexual references. Also classified in terms of whether it was interactive (response to other graffiti) or independent (stand-alone comment). Found that males composed more sexual and physical presence graffiti, whilst females authored more romantic and interactive graffiti

Answer 2

A type of content analysis which dies not use tallies to create quantitative data but instead looks for general ‘themes’ and produces qualitative data

Answer 3

Any idea (explicit or implicit) that is re-occurring in a communication (keeps popping up)- has to be consistent throughout the data (not a one off trait)

Answer 4

Qualitative data

Answer 5

In content analysis you create behavioural categories before you begin so you can tally as you go along. In thematic analysis you do not start with pre-determine categories. You start with nothing and build a picture using summaries if themes as and when they are spotted during the research 1) Doesn’t have behavioural categories (no pre-determine categories. Finds and creates themes during the process not before starting) 2) Produces qualitative not quantitative data 3) Thematic analysis is a type of content analysis (where as content analysis is an ‘umbrella term’) 4) doesn’t use tallies but makes simple qualitative notes of themes referred to as memo’s (CA uses tally charts)

Answer 6

1) FAMILIARISE yourself with your communication by going over it several times eg:read/watch a couple of times and make sure you have understood it. Always make sure you have your research question in mind 2) EXAMINE the communication, noting down any key information within the communication eg:highlighting sentences in dairy entries, key speech/phrases/features in videos- reduce amount eg: in a film, may watch certain scenes to conduct analysis 3) LOOKING at the key information, look for ‘themes’ which run throughout. Ensure they cover most if the material being analysed and examples to justify-comes your multiple times- evidence is throughout 4) TEST the validity of the ‘themes’ (after written up results) you have found by carrying out more analysis focusing on those themes eg: May interview more people, check if theme is actually valid - write up - Research further

Answer 7

Can’t use graphs as data is qualitative Present themes in a summary along with justifications and conclusions as to why those themes fit their data They use quotes from the data or examples eg: scenes in a film, in order to demonstrate the themes This is why making notes throughout your investigations is important (easier when creating themes, familiarising the data and justifying) This may include: - what themes they’ve found - why there are themes - have examples from within their communication that show theme - conclude why theme fits

Answer 8

When generating qualitative data in a content analysis Themes only appearing after the data has been coded Theme-refers to any idea (implicit or explicit) that is recurrent- more descriptive cases of coding then in a content analysis Eg: mental illness may be represented in a newspaper such as ‘drain in the resources of the NHS’ and ‘a threat to the well-being of our children’, this may be then developed into broader categories like ‘control’, ‘stereotyping’, ‘treatment’... May collect a new set if data which tests the validity of themes and categories Researcher will then write a final report, typically using direct whites from the data to illustrate each theme

Answer 9

Lockdown behaviour: - start with a broad research question: 1) Familiarise- read through lockdown diaries to become familiar and make sure you understand everything 2) Examine it carefully and break down into significant parts eg: may highlight people mentioning habits and activities 3) Look for ‘themes’ within qualitative aspects of the diary eg: theme of food- make sure its consistent throughout. Can range eg: baking more to snacking because of boredom 4) can be explored in more depth eg: conducting a content analysis with the theme therefore creating behavioural categories and tallying etc

Answer 10

Can’t use grains as data is qualitative Present themes in a summary along with justifications and conclusions as to why those themes fit their data They use quotes from the data or examples eg: evened in a film, in order to demonstrates the themes This is why making notes throughout your investigation is important (easier hen creating themes, familiarising the data and justifying) - what themes they’ve found - why there are themes - have examples from within their communication that show theme - conclude why theme fits REMEMBER TO LOOK AT SUMMARY MIND MAP OF THEMATIC ANALYSIS! (In notes)

Answer 11

1) Abstract 2) Introduction 3) Method 4) Results 5) Discussion 6) Referencing 7) Appendices

Answer 12

This is the first section of a report that you read. It is always written LAST Overview- key details of the research report Usually 150-200 words Psychologists will often read lots of abstracts in order to identify those investigations that are worthy for further examination It refers to other parts in the report such as the aim, hypothesis, method and procedure, results and conclusions It is written last ri make sure everything important is included (reviewed everything else)

Answer 13

Literature revise of general areas of investigation eg: relevant theories, concepts and studies related to current study Logical progression- begins broadly and gradually becomes more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented Background and rationale Aims and hypothesis- they come here because of the process of funnelling where broad information then beck es more specific and our aim and hypothesis in the research becomes clear Overall what’s included? - background research - broadly talk about what the previous research involved eg: identify any gaps - Lead into rationale- gradually broad then becomes more specific

Answer 14

Most broken down-has different sections, encompasses everything needed for the experiment - design - participants/ sample - materials/ apparatus - procedure - ethics Design= independent groups, naturalistic observation... justify why? Eg: why have you chosen to choose different participants in each condition, how have you delegated them? Participants- how many? How old? ( as long as doesn’t compromise anonymity) eg: sampling method and target population, undergraduate? Why? What kind of sample? Random, opportunity, volunteer? - who are they? - where do they come from? - where did you recruit them? Materials= assessment of instruments used and any inner relevant props/ materials -list of everything Procedure= step by step process, ‘recipe-style’ eg: briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing -more scientific- replicable Ethics- how addressed and why? Eg: fixed it by having informed consent, debriefing... Example in notes- peanut butter study

Answer 15

Descriptive stats Inferential stats Graphs and tables - summarise what found - quantitate data - no raw data- original data is put in the appendix- don’t go into results - averages will go into results (raw data appear in appendix rather than main body) but not original data - put into a graph or table - what do they mean? What does this suggest about research question? - Inferential stats? Luck (not significant)? Significance? - descriptive stats- tables, graphs, measures of central tendency or measures of dispersion - qualitative methods- likely to be analysis of themes or categories - inferential stats- statistical test - calculated critical values - level of significance - final outcome eg: was hypothesis rejected or retained?

Answer 16

Summary of results (written or numerical) Contextual links (previous research and introduction) Evaluation of study- strengths, weaknesses, flaws of study- reflection Future study and improvements - change? Any new research questions based on research? Improvements needed? What contribution has this investigation made to existing knowledge based within this field? Application and implications to real world Largest section

Answer 17

The researcher includes full details of all research that they have referred to at the very end of their written report These are listed in a conventional format in alphabetical order Important because: - assessed validity of the research - stops playdrism - Important in peer review - important in replication - important when assessing conclusions of research- what sources did they use to support/ challenge their hypothesis?

Answer 18

Raw data Consent forms and debriefs etc Extra which doesn’t fit in the rest of main body eg: constructing test or questionnaire, copies of things like the consent form, raw data placed here- important for peer review- can effectively take data, re-do test and check the validity from this

Answer 19

This is a list of all the journal articles and books that have been mentioned in the body of the report Especially in introduction eg: previous research Extensive list

Answer 20

APA format

Answer 21

It is the written information for a source of information which has been used in a report

Answer 22

It is important to provide a reference list as it validates where a researcher gained their information, helps to prevent fraud, and allows others to examine the important information the researcher has used Credible location Prevents fraud/ playdrism

Answer 23

2 types need to know: 1)Article / report reference: Last name, first initial. (Year). Article Title. Journal name, volume (Issue), page/s. 2)Book reference: Last name, first initial. (Year).Title. Edition (if not first edition of the book).City of Publication: publisher. Examples in notes

Answer 24

1) Aim (may be false if want to prevent demand characteristics) 2) Outline of what they will have to do (procedure, participants... make sure participants are comfortable and happy) 3) Right to withdraw 4) Confidentiality eg: known by number not name, results being destroyed after a certain time... 5) Any Questions? 6) Somewhere to sign so logged formally (then put in appendices of a psychological report) Use paragraphs so looks like a consent form

Answer 25

Step by step of everything they have to do (number it)- simple language, clear... Right to withdraw Any questions? Found in appendices

Answer 26

Thank them eg: thank you for participating, your participation was valued What the experiment aimed to do- if simple will just repeat hi if gave a fake aim like milgrams then here you will give the true aim Other groups involved (mention other groups eg: if did repeated measures, if did high say that so they know their clear role in the experiment) How they were deceived Confidentiality Right to withdraw Where they can access more info eg: if want to know results Any questions Found in appendices

Answer 27

Aim- determine whether different emotions create facial expressions specific to that emotion. This would allow them to see if all people have a common expression when feeling disgust, shock, joy.... Procedure= students taken to a lab and their faves were painted with black lines (to study movements of their facial muscles). Then they were exposed to stimuli to create a reaction and photographed by Landis.

Answer 28

No protection of the participant- made to smell ammonia, look at pornography, put their hands into a bucket of frogs, shown a live rat and asked to behead it and for those who couldn’t Landis would cut the animals head off for them (no consent), psychological harm Deception- aim was questioned showed that people will do anything when in a situation like this- did not prove humans have a common set of unique facial expressions No consent- no instructions No clear right to withdraw- forced to cut off head, if didn’t he would do it

Answer 29

Highlight stem COMPLETE ALL BULLET POINTS- paragraphing is a good way to ensure this Try to write justification for every single choice you make eg: chosen non-directional hypothesis as no previous research is in the information provided Try not to stray too far from the bullet points eg: great if you can add a aim or hypothesis but the main way your assessed/ main requirement is the bullet points- clearly stated in the mark scheme, only if will make response better and when appropriate Always plan your study before you start to write it Should take 15 minutes Additional information like sentence starters, examples....in notes and GoodNotes!!

Answer 30

1) General ideas (collected background research to begin theory construction) 2) We create hypotheses to put our ideas to the test 3) With hypotheses in place, we can create research via the empirical method. This could be direct observation or experimentation 4) The empirical method is designed to be objective , replicable and allows us to falsify the theory

Answer 31

- objectivity - replicability - paradigm and paradigm shift - falsifiability - theory construction - hypothesis testing - empirical method

Answer 32

To be scientific needs to be ‘objective’ and not contain ‘subjectivity’. This means the research must be impartial and free from opinion (and bias) from the researchers. We use ‘empirical method’ in order to produce objective (and replicable) research

Answer 33

- replicable- should be able to be conducted multiple times in order to verify how reliable the results are - research should be ‘standardised’ - can decide general law

Answer 34

- Cannot be considered scientific unless it is ‘falsifiable’. This means it must admit to the possibility of being untrue and can be tested- proven and disproven - unfalsifiable research eg: Freud’s ID, ego and superego or cognitive approach, things like self- actualisation- cannot see it, test it= cannot be tested or proven - for it to be scientific needs to be proved

Answer 35

-a theory is a set of general laws which can be applied through a discipline. Theories are constructed through gathering of evidence to support it. This often uses the ‘empirical method/ experimental method’ in order to test hypothesis. This allows researchers to accept or reject hypotheses which lead to a better understanding of theories

Answer 36

- an important part of any theory is being able to test it and formulate predictions to do so (this also allows us to falsify which is another feature of science). We know hypotheses are predictions which are made when using an empirical method to test a theory. - Need evidence to support it as a theory so create hypotheses which can be tested- accept or rejects hypothesis- answers our theory and then have evidence for theory

Answer 37

-refers to scientific methods which are focused around gathering evidence via experimentation or direct observation. It uses observable/ measurable concepts and follows hypotheses in order to test theories. Something cannot be considered scientific until it has been tested and verified (or reject as false).

Answer 38

-a paradigm is a commonly held belief within a scientific discipline -an example of a paradigm is the belief in evolution in biology. -scientific disciplines are known to have set paradigms (no one paradigm in psychology- all have different beliefs, set belief by the majority) ➡️eg: behaviour is learnt, early childhood experiences, biology... ➡️eg: existence of the atom, commonly held belief-science

Answer 39

- when a big revolution takes place in a scientific discipline. This makes a significant change in commonly held beliefs. Hence the belief ‘shifts’ from an old view to a new one - for example- believing the earth is flat, and the new belief that the earth is a sphere - psychology- don’t have one set paradigm, always change, no strong core belief= problem in scientific nature

Answer 40

Paradigm- a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Answer 41

Paradigm shift- the result of a scientific revolution- a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

Answer 42

Objectivity- when all sources of personal bias are minimised so as to distort or influence the research process

Answer 43

The empirical method- scientific approches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience

Answer 44

Replicability- the extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

Answer 45

Falsifiability- the principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue (false)

Answer 46

- Thomas Kuhn suggested that to distinguish between scientific and non-scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumptions and methods- paradigm - He suggested because social sciences (psychology included) lack a universal paradigm, they are best seen as ‘pre-science’ rather than a natural science like biology or psychics - this is because unlike natural sciences which have core beliefs, psychology is marked by internal disagreement and conflicting approches to qualify as a science - Kuhn states that progress is established in science by a scientific revolution which leads to a paradigm shift - Kuhn’s example being the Newtonian paradigm in physics towards Einstein’s theory of relativity

Answer 47

- science tests theories - should be possible to make clear and precise predictions on the basis of the theory- role of hypothesis testing - theories should suggest a large number of possible hypotheses - if the hypothesis is supported the theory will be strengthened, if the theory is refuted it will need to be revised - the process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory known as deduction - theory construction occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation or empirical method - hypothesis should be able to be scientifically tested

Answer 48

- some believe psychology is ‘the study of mind and behaviour’ - could be argued psychology has gone through paradigm shifts eg: Wundt’s structuralism to cognitive neuroscience model of today - some researchers like Feyera Bend (1975) suggested Kuhn’s conception of ‘proper’ science is flawed. They suggested most sciences are characterised by internal conflict, dispute and a refusal to accept new ideas in the face of evidence

Answer 49

Research hypothesis

Answer 50

Experimental hypothesis

Answer 51

Correlational hypothesis

Answer 52

- Karl Popper (1934) argued a key criterion of a scientific theory is its falsifiability - suggested should test hypothesis and be open to being proven false - theory of falsification- line between good science where hypothesis are constantly challenged and ‘pseudosciences’ which couldn’t be falsified - the theories that survive falsify are the strongest (not necessarily because true) but because despite best efforts, they have not been proven false - this is why an alternative hypothesis must always be accompanied by a null hypothesis - why don’t use phrases like ‘proves’

Answer 53

- poppers hypothetico-deductive method replicability is important - scientific theory should be ‘trusted’ and repeated across different contexts and circumstances- determines validity - it also important in determining reliability of the method and assess validity of findings - can also find the extent to which findings can be generalised - investigations need to therefore be precise and thorough so other researchers can verify their work and findings that have been established

Answer 54

- ‘critical distance’ during research - personal opinions or biases should not effect the collection or influence on data - lab experiments have huge amounts of control meaning they tend to be the most objective - objectivity is the basis of empirical method - empirical methods emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience - examples of empirical method include the experimental method and observational method - early emphasis such as John Locke saw knowledge determined by experience and sensory perception - can’t be ‘scientific’ unless empirically tested and verified

Answer 55

- psychology as a science gives it greater credibility and more of an equal footing with other, more established sciences - the scientific approach in psychology has provided practical applications and improved people’s lives eg: challenged dysfunctional behaviour - gives a fuller picture- more then just common sense as some results are counted- intuitive

Answer 56

- uses empirical method of gathering evidence through direct observation and experience - Milgram’s (1963) findings were different from everyday beliefs and observations eg: would not predict that participants would harm another person simply because they were told to by an authority figure, showed 65% went to 450v (thought it would only be 1-3%) therefore common sense is little in understanding human behaviour - CBT is successful treatment for depression. March et al found found 81% of adolescents showed an improvement using CBT as a treatment- no side effects and can be combined sigh drug treatments - SD-helped people overcome phobias eg: arachnophobia. Gilroy et al found those treated with SD improved between 3 and 33 months later. SD can be used for all sorts of people even children where inner treatments may not be suitable

Answer 57

- Kuhn- ‘pre-science’-too many different approches, each have different assumptions about the causes of behaviour, have different methods to investigate behaviour therefore psychology has no paradigm so can’t be scientific - case studies and unstructured interviews- unstandardised and subjective eg: Little Hans. Freud never met Hans’ father- could of been used just to fit theory, interpreted subjectively - cognitive- cannot be directly observed eg: memory-inference- guess work - replicability is harder in psychology, impossible to repeat in exactly the same conditions, even if used same person twice, circumstances are more different - memory experiments- lack ecological validity eg: lists of words or constants- do not reject everyday life- no meaning to individuals

Answer 58

- these previous notes were made in quarantine, you have in lessons now gone over this content- (have booklet for it)- same notes- no extra detail - but read booklet to make sure haven’t missed anything and as a summary !!

Answer 59

-data in categories (eg: yes/no)

Answer 60

- ranked data where the difference between items is not the same - rating/ likely scales - subjective - can be put in order

Answer 61

Finding the spread of the data

Answer 62

-Characterising the data

Answer 63

- data with equal units and can have minus or plus numbers | - standard unit-inflexible eg: 1cm=10mm, heart rate, temp, weight= standardised

Answer 64

-finding the average (eg. Mean, mode)

Answer 65

- draw conclusions about data - probability significant or chance/ luck - based around probability - significant= can we generalise? - low probability then we can generalise - tell us whether our results are significant so we can generalise - can lead to publication - assess probability that the results could be just down to chance

Answer 66

- if a test shows our results are significant we accept our alternative hypothesis - if it meets the level of probability we have chosen- rather than it being a result of ‘chance’ -if it is not significant we accept our null hypothesis (no difference, down to chance)

Answer 67

- we test for it by finding an observed value (stat get from statistical test) and comparing it to a critical value (comes from a table of critical values which is standardised by mathematicians - doesn’t matter what experiment- same in psychology and science- pre-determined (direction of hypothesis, percentage and number of participants) -always use 0.05 unless says something different!!

Answer 68

0. 05 and 0.01 - 0.01= for medical/ life altering research- minimum- have to have tighter margins- 99% compared to 95% effective- better in a life or death scenario

Answer 69

-the alternative hypothesis is accepted when the null hypothesis should have been accepted - larger error for error, eg: 80% luck,20% true - have to repeat test- unless repeated could be unidentified - too relaxed - type-1-fluke- accepted hypothesis- when should have said null-luck - more common more relaxed percentages are

Answer 70

- the null hypothesis is accepted when the alternative hypothesis should have been accepted - should have found something meaningful - true stringent eg: 0.01 or 1%= picky with margin for error

Answer 71

-balances the two errors out- not too strict and not too relaxed

Answer 72

👀 NEED TO KNOW TABLE OFF MY HEART! ALL THE STATISTICAL TESTS!

Answer 73

1) Testing for a difference (Association, IV + DV?) OR correlation (co-variables/ relationship)? 2) Level of measurement- Nominal, ordinal or interval 3) In text, is it unrelated data or related data? - unrelated= independent groups- can’t swap over - related- repeated measures- matched pairs -CAN’T HAVE NOMINAL IN CORRELATION- instantly know it is a difference

Answer 74

1) Chi square 2) Sign test 3) Mann-Whitney 4) Wilcoxon- T 5) Spearman’s 6) Unrelated T 7) Related T 8) Pearsons

Answer 75

Most simple Nominal Ordinal Interval Most complex -always choose most simple!

Answer 76

- DIAGRAMS!! - printed off summary page! Eg: example of when you may get both ordinal and interval level of measurement- always choose simpler one (here ordinal)

Answer 77

1) Contingency table 2) Told observed value of chi square (X2 (indice) 3) find critical value of chi square from a table 4) Degrees of freedom= calculated by (number of rows minus one) multiplied by (number of columns minus one) 5) Find observed value of chi square is greater than the critical value the test is significant and we can accept the alternative hypothesis -greater-significant- alternative hypothesis

Answer 78

- In every stats test if ‘R’ in its name- observed value has to be GREATER if no ‘R’ has to be less - Eg: in a sign test, there is no R in its name therefore the observed value has to be LESS than critical value for it to be significant

Answer 79

1) Tests for a difference or association 2) Level of measurement is nominal (categories) 3) Independent groups design (not mixed, separate IV eg: boys and girls) -begins with a contingency table (could be asked to draw one)

Answer 80

- the chi square test is used where the data is nominal eg: frequencies of a particular colour - the table of results is known as a contingency table - in order to establish the critical value for a particular experiment we need to know the degrees of freedom - this is calculated by number of rows minus one times the number of columns minus one

Answer 81

- look if there is previous research in the information | - if there is it is two-tailed

Answer 82

1) Tests for a correlation 2) Level of measurement is ordinal (or if one is ordinal and one is interval, 1 or both)- always go for simpler level of measurement (diagram example in booklet! 👀 3) Correlational design

Answer 83

- observed value of rho= correlation coefficient - use table to get critical value of rho - need to know how many participants in total

Answer 84

- due to the GREATER R RULE - if ‘R’ in name or test always greater - also make sure check direction is same as in hypothesis- positive/ negative correlation because eg: yes signifiant but have to REJECT original hypothesis....

Answer 85

1) Tests for a correlation 2) Lebel or measurement is interval (parametric) 3) Correlational design

Answer 86

1) Told observed value 2) Use table to calculate critical value 3) How many participants there are in total + CALCULATE DEGREES OD FREEDOM WHEN LOOKING AT CRITICAL VALUES TABLE (To do this, do N-2=DF)

Answer 87

- final observed value needs to be GREATER (HAS R) then critical value for the test to be significant - accept alternative hypothesis - again check direction of hypothesis!

Answer 88

- spearman’s rho is non- parametric. It is chosen when the data are ordinal. It is a test of correlation - Pearson’s R is parametric. It is chosen when the data are interval. It is a test of correlation

Answer 89

- Non-parametric= cannot assume a normal distribution | - parametric= assume a normal distribution eg: middle- most, few at extremities

Answer 90

- difficulty if question is not consistent- fluctuates | - not everyone will find it the same, therefore can’t be equal units (interval)

Answer 91

In booklet has examples and way should set it out!

Answer 92

- Parametric (allows us to assume normal distribution) - used for a specific level of measurement-interval data - Independent groups - significant when observed value is greater than or equal to critical value

Answer 93

- parametric (allows us to assume normal distribution) - interval data - REPEATED MEASURES (or matched pairs) - significant when observed value is greater than or equal to C (because of greater R rule)

Answer 94

- non parametric (CANNOT assume normal distribution) - ORDINAL data - Independent groups design - Significant when observed value is LESS THAN or equal to critical value

Answer 95

- Non-parametric - Ordinal - Repeated measures design - significant if observed value is LESS than or equal to critical value

Answer 96

1) Tests for a difference 2) Interval data (equal units) 3) Independent groups design (separate, remember as “unrelated”)

Answer 97

-calculated value

Answer 98

1) Will be told observed value of T 2) Use table to calculate critical value 3) Know how many participants in total and calculate degrees of freedom To calculate DF: (Na - 1 + Nb - 1= DF) 4)If T/O is GREATER than or equal to critical value it is significant and therefore CAN accept alternative hypothesis

Answer 99

1) Tests for a difference 2) Interval data 3) Repeated measures design (or matched pairs)- only 1 set of participants (even for matched pairs as seen as same person eg: may write as 1a and then the other would be 1b)

Answer 100

1) Told observed value of T 2) Use table for critical value 3) How many participants in total and calculate degrees of freedom To calculate DF: (N-1=DF) 4)If observed value is GREATER than or equal to critical value it is significant, CAN accept alternative hypothesis

Answer 101

1) Tests for a difference 2) Ordinal data (non-parametric- cannot assume normal distribution) 3) Independent groups design

Answer 102

1) Told observed value= U 2) Use table to find critical value 3) Need to know how many participants in EACH group- NO DF 4) Final observed value of U is LESS THAN the critical value is significant- can accept alternative hypothesis

Answer 103

1) Tests for a difference 2) Ordinal data 3) Repeated measures design (Non-parametric, NO DF)

Answer 104

1) Told observed value 2) Use critical table to find critical value 3) Need to know how many participants in total 4) If observed value is LESS than critical value test is significant, CAN accept alternative hypothesis

Answer 105

- The Wilcoxon test is non- parametric. It is chosen when the data are ordinal and related. It is a test of repeated measures - The Mann Whitney test is non-parametric. It is chosen when the data are ordinal and unrelated. It is a test of independent groups design

Answer 106

-examples in book!!

Answer 107

-unique critical value table in that it doesn’t tell you the direction or percentages- get 2 different tables, one for one tailed, the other two tailed

Answer 108

1) Testing for a difference 2) Nominal data 3) You have repeated measures design

Answer 109

- level of significance - Direction of hypothesis - Number of participants (any Os) O=S -(no R so observed value has to be equal to or less than critical value)

Answer 110

1) state the hypothesis 2) Determine if it is a one- tailed or two-tailed test 3) Record each pair of data, working out the difference 4) Record a plus for a positive difference and a minus for a negative difference 5) Add up all the pluses and all the minuses and select the smaller value 6) This smaller value is the critical value, S 7) Find the critical value of S with a table of critical values 8) Check the results is in the right direction (for a directional hypothesis) 9) If the calculated value is equal to or LESS than the critical value, the result is significant

Answer 111

- examples on iPad and booklet | - plus extra practice questions in GoodNotes

Answer 112

-the year 13 booklet is a mixture of year 12 content, lockdown content and NEW (statistical tests) year 13 content - THEREFORE... - Use all resources and sheets and summaries when learning that selfie topic- likely to have 2 maybe 3 different summaries!

Answer 113

- Outlines the topic to be studied - what the researcher intends to investigate - purpose of the study - ‘To investigate’...

Answer 114

- states there will be a difference and EXACTLY what that difference will be - eg: boys will score HIGHER on maths tests than girls

Answer 115

- States there will be a difference but not what that difference will be - eg: there will be a difference in maths test scores between boys and girls

Answer 116

- every participant has an equal chance of being selected eg: names from a hat - means that it is unbiased - BUT: - may not be representative

Answer 117

- when groups in the population are identified and the same proportions collected in the sample - eg: put the population into strata - avoids researcher bias - means we can generalise easier to the population - BUT: - Cannot reflect all ways people are different

Answer 118

- when every nth name is selected - eg: use a sampling frame which has list of population - or can use a register and stop at certain intervals - means can generalise better and avoids researcher bias - BUT: - no choice over who is chosen may miss some out eg: a particular age group or location - list of target population is hard to attain - still possible to not get representative results

Answer 119

- when easily available people are used in the sample - EG: parents picking up children from school - easy, quick, convenient, cheap and effective - BUT: - relies on available people - may not be representative - researcher bias- unconscious bias, ask people you think look better or who seem more knowledgeable/ more approachable - hard in some locations, geographical differences

Answer 120

- when people put themselves forward eg: respond to a advert or in newspaper - easy- come to you - enthusiastic people- volunteered so less likely to drop out - not representative - volunteer bias- fit certain profile, likely to be more knowledgeable on topic researching/ interested in it

Answer 121

-in all may refuse to take part

Answer 122

- states there will be no difference or any difference is down to chance - accepted if the results of the experiment are NOT significant

Answer 123

- clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured - eg: memory is arbitrary, more then one way to do test so need to be accurate

Answer 124

-describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory can be directional (one tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed)

Answer 125

- no IV or DV - There are co-variables- two things which are measured and compared for a relationship - 3 types- positive, negative and no correlation

Answer 126

- the variable that is measured by the researcher - any effect in the DV should be caused by the change in the IV - (thing that is measured)

Answer 127

- some aspect of the experimental situation is manipulated by the researcher- or changes naturally - so effect on DV can be measured - (manipulated, thing that is changed)

Answer 128

- loads in year 13 booklet which are marked - make sure you always operationalise your variable- the more specific the better- pretend as though actually doing the experiment

Answer 129

• Consistency • If they did the test on another day would they get the same results? • Is there standardised procedures and instructions i.e. is there consistency in the way the experiment is conducted? Questions usually ask... 1) What is it? 2) How do you assess it? 3) How do you improve it?

Answer 130

• Are the observers scoring in the same way? - this is how you would assess the reliability of an observation - across people - primarily through observations eg: can improve by increasing the number of observers

Answer 131

* Reliability = consistency * Validity = accuracy - you can still be reliable but not accurate eg: consistently inaccurate - good diagram in GoodNotes (year 13 pg:94)!

Answer 132

• Test-retest • Conduct the test again and see if you get the same results • Conduct a spearmans rho test comparing the scores – Testing for a correlation (if there is no correlation between the observers etc then it is not consistent so not reliable) So for 3 marks... 1) Test re-test 2) Compare test 1 with test 2 3) Use spearman’s rho and calculate a correlation co-efficient (if .8 or higher it is strong and therefore reliable)

Answer 133

• Change open questions to fixed choice closed questions • Re-write questions so they are not too ambiguous and so interpreted in the same way -FINISH!

Answer 134

-the year 13 booklet is a mixture of year 12 content, lockdown content and NEW (statistical tests) year 13 content - THEREFORE... - Use all resources and sheets and summaries when learning that selfie topic- likely to have 2 maybe 3 different summaries!

Answer 135

- Outlines the topic to be studied - what the researcher intends to investigate - purpose of the study - ‘To investigate’...

Answer 136

- states there will be a difference and EXACTLY what that difference will be - eg: boys will score HIGHER on maths tests than girls

Answer 137

- States there will be a difference but not what that difference will be - eg: there will be a difference in maths test scores between boys and girls

Answer 138

- every participant has an equal chance of being selected eg: names from a hat - means that it is unbiased - BUT: - may not be representative

Answer 139

- when groups in the population are identified and the same proportions collected in the sample - eg: put the population into strata - avoids researcher bias - means we can generalise easier to the population - BUT: - Cannot reflect all ways people are different

Answer 140

- when every nth name is selected - eg: use a sampling frame which has list of population - or can use a register and stop at certain intervals - means can generalise better and avoids researcher bias - BUT: - no choice over who is chosen may miss some out eg: a particular age group or location - list of target population is hard to attain - still possible to not get representative results

Answer 141

- when easily available people are used in the sample - EG: parents picking up children from school - easy, quick, convenient, cheap and effective - BUT: - relies on available people - may not be representative - researcher bias- unconscious bias, ask people you think look better or who seem more knowledgeable/ more approachable - hard in some locations, geographical differences

Answer 142

- when people put themselves forward eg: respond to a advert or in newspaper - easy- come to you - enthusiastic people- volunteered so less likely to drop out - not representative - volunteer bias- fit certain profile, likely to be more knowledgeable on topic researching/ interested in it

Answer 143

-in all may refuse to take part

Answer 144

- states there will be no difference or any difference is down to chance - accepted if the results of the experiment are NOT significant

Answer 145

- clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured - eg: memory is arbitrary, more then one way to do test so need to be accurate

Answer 146

-describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory can be directional (one tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed)

Answer 147

- no IV or DV - There are co-variables- two things which are measured and compared for a relationship - 3 types- positive, negative and no correlation

Answer 148

- the variable that is measured by the researcher - any effect in the DV should be caused by the change in the IV - (thing that is measured)

Answer 149

- some aspect of the experimental situation is manipulated by the researcher- or changes naturally - so effect on DV can be measured - (manipulated, thing that is changed)

Answer 150

- loads in year 13 booklet which are marked - make sure you always operationalise your variable- the more specific the better- pretend as though actually doing the experiment

Answer 151

• Consistency • If they did the test on another day would they get the same results? • Is there standardised procedures and instructions i.e. is there consistency in the way the experiment is conducted? Questions usually ask... 1) What is it? 2) How do you assess it? 3) How do you improve it?

Answer 152

• Are the observers scoring in the same way? - this is how you would assess the reliability of an observation - across people - primarily through observations eg: can improve by increasing the number of observers

Answer 153

* Reliability = consistency * Validity = accuracy - you can still be reliable but not accurate eg: consistently inaccurate - good diagram in GoodNotes (year 13 pg:94)!

Answer 154

• Test-retest • Conduct the test again and see if you get the same results • Conduct a spearmans rho test comparing the scores – Testing for a correlation (if there is no correlation between the observers etc then it is not consistent so not reliable) So for 3 marks... 1) Test re-test 2) Compare test 1 with test 2 3) Use spearman’s rho and calculate a correlation co-efficient (if .8 or higher it is strong and therefore reliable)

Answer 155

• Change open questions to fixed choice closed questions • Re-write questions so they are not too ambiguous and so interpreted in the same way - unambiguous eg: keep simple terminology, remove jargon, no leading questions, or more than 1 question within a question (double barrels), no negatives, no room for author interpretation - standardise by removing any open questions

Answer 156

• Use the same interviewer • If the same interviewer cant be used, train the interviewers to ask questions in the same way -structured interviews= CAPI

Answer 157

• Use standardised procedures - operationalise variables to make sure the measurable and objective - same location, setting, task, instructions, materials, procedure, method, conditions... (even in waiting room or drinks eg: coffee- same amount and type...)

Answer 158

• Operationalise behavioural categories • Use the same observer (inter-observer reliability) • If the same observer cant be used, train observers and further operationalise categories until they all record in the same way -behavioural categories which are well defined and clear (operationalise them eg: how can you measure happiness) good test for inter-rater

Answer 159

- if a psychological measure can be used multiple times with the same results it is said to be reliable. For example, a reliable test of intelligence would yield the same results on the same person each time the measurement is taken - there are two key ways of assessing reliability and they are: the test re-test method and inter-rater reliability - the test re-test method is commonly applied when assessing the reliability of questionnaires, psychological tests eg: personality or IQ and interviews. The test is administered twice and the results are compared. Of scores are obtained then a correlation coefficient can be calculated. A reasonably reliable result would be one where the correlation coefficient was +.80 or more. Note that one of the challenges with this method is deciding on the time lapse between tests. There must be but not too much time in case the attitudes or ability being tested actually changes - Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability involves checking the consistency of ratings that two or more independent researchers have completed. The two observers will apply the behavioural categories to a test run (also called a pilot study) and the consistency of the results will be assessed

Answer 160

- it is important to note that assessing reliability is only measuring it and if the reliability level is found to be poor them further steps will need to be taken - in questionnaires that are found to be unreliable, ambiguous or complex questions may be removed. Sometimes this involves replacing open questions (open room individual interpretation) with closed ones with a more restricted range of responses - in interviews, reliability can be improved by using the same interviewer with all participants or at least training them all in the same way eg: to avoid leading questions - the more structured an interview is, the more reliable it is likely to be - in experiments, reliability can be improved by ensuring that standardised instructions and procedures are used - observation reliability can be improved by careful operationalisation and explanation of the behaviour categories - they should be as independent as possible is avoiding overlap

Answer 161

👀 MINDMAP- ATTACHED TO BOOKLET- NEED TO!! BASICALLY EVERYTHING! MEMORISE! :)

Answer 162

``` • Accuracy • Internal validity – are we measuring what we set out to measure? i.e. the IV • External validity – can we accurately generalise? ```

Answer 163

• If there are extraneous or confounding variables this is lowered – because then we are no longer testing the effect of the IV on the DV

Answer 164

Extraneous variables: ‘nuisance variables’ which affect the DV but don’t vary systematically with the IV (it is a random error – might not affect everyone in the same way) e.g. temperature of room, participants mood on that day etc. (‘muddy’ the experimental water so to speak but don’t confound the findings of the study)

Answer 165

Confounding variables: affect the DV and do vary systematically with the IV (affects everyone in the same way) e.g. if all the participants in condition 1 were more intelligent than those in condition 2 (these variables have a direct impact on the DV – they confound the findings of the study)

Answer 166

• Population validity – is our sample representative • Ecological validity – is the environment accurate to real life? • Temporal validity– is the experiment still accurate to todays society?

Answer 167

``` Participant reactivity: • Hawthorne effect – when the added attention of being in a study affects participant behaviour e.g. they may be shy or show off ``` • Demand characteristics – when participants think they have figured out the aims of the experiment and change their behaviour • Social desirability bias – when participants try to look good by answering/behaving in a socially acceptable way

Answer 168

``` Investigator effects: • Experimenter bias – when the experimenter effects the results e.g. through their interpretation, through body language, facial expressions, the way they speak etc. ``` • Interviewer bias – when the interviewer affects the responses of the interviewee • e.g. Greenspoon effect – when the interviewer makes affirmative noises e.g. mmmmhhhmmmm after certain answers, this affects the way the participant responds i.e. they think ‘that must have been a good answer, I will try to give more like that’

Answer 169

• Randomisation The use of chance wherever possible to reduce the researchers influence. E.g. randomly assigning participants to conditions, randomly generating the order of a list of words for a memory experiment etc.

Answer 170

• Standardisation: All participants should be subject to the exact same process – the only thing that should be different is manipulation of the IV. E.g. written instructions, time limits, doing everything in the same order etc.

Answer 171

• Counterbalancing: Control the impact of order effects, half do condition one first while the other half do condition two, then they swap.

Answer 172

• Single blind design: The use of deception, misleading the participants

Answer 173

• Double blind design: When both the participant and the researcher are unaware of the aims of the study

Answer 174

Concurrent validity Predictive validity Face validity Content validity

Answer 175

• Face validity is a subjective assessment of whether or not a test appears to measure the behaviour it claims to.

Answer 176

• Content validity is an objective assessment of the items in a test to establish whether or not they all relate to and measure the behaviour in question. Experts assess whether the test is measuring what it set out to and stats are used to compare their assessments.

Answer 177

• Concurrent validity is a comparison between two tests of a particular behaviour. One test has already been established as a valid measure of the behaviour, and the other test is the new one. If the results from both old and new tests significantly correlate then the new test is valid.

Answer 178

• Predictive validity refers to how well a test predicts future behaviour. An example of this is a diagnostic test for a mental health problem such as depression. If the test is a valid measure of depression and accurately diagnoses depression, then there will be a significant positive correlation between the test scores and the outcome for the patient.

Answer 179

• Some questionnaires assess the consistency of the responses – a ‘lie scale’ • Assure participants it is anonymous -filler questions

Answer 180

• Respondent validation...check with them you have understood how they feel etc correctly • Triangulation...cross check using different methods

Answer 181

• Use standardised procedures • Introduce controls for extraneous variables e.g. counterbalancing to control for order effects etc.

Answer 182

* Operationalise behavioural categories | * Conduct a covert observations so participants act naturally

Answer 183

Content analysis: • A type of observational research whereby people are studied indirectly via the communications they produce e.g. emails, letters, media (magazines, TV shows, films), transcribed conversations/interviews etc. • The aim is to summarise the communication in a systematic way so conclusions can be drawn

Answer 184

Content analysis: • Things to consider: 1. What communication are you analyzing? Is it a series of letters? News? TV? Emails? 2. Sampling method – does the researcher look at every page of a book or just every 5th? -We have to make sure we have decided how to sample. • Conducting a content analysis (quantitative): • Coding– researcher uses behavioural categories to count the number of times something occurs. For example the number of derogatory terms used to describe mental illness in the news ‘crazy’ ‘mad’ etc. • Represent the data – you could count instances (quantitative). We can also describe instances (examples) which would make data qualitative. • Conducting a Thematic analysis (qualitative): • Thematic analysis – decisions about behavioural categories may involve a thematic analysis.

Answer 185

Thematic analysis: • A technique used when analysing qualitative data. • Themes are identified and then data is organised according to these themes. • A theme is ‘any idea, explicit or implicit which is recurrent (keeps popping up)’. • E.g. mental illness in the news may show themes of being a ‘drain of NHS resources’.

Answer 186

* Thematic = qualitative data produced | * Content analysis = quantitate or qualitative data produced.

Answer 187

• Main intentions of thematic analysis are: • 1.) To impose some kind of order in the data • 2.) Ensure the order fits with the participants perspective. • 3.) To ensure the order emerges from the data (no bias) • 4.) Summarise the data • 5.) Enable themes to be identified and conclusions to be drawn.

Answer 188

Case Study: • Genie and Clive Wearing are both examples of case studies • A case study is a detailed, in-depth analysis of an individual, group, institution or event • They often collect mainly qualitative data but sometimes quantitative too • They tend to be longitudinal • They use a variety of methods such as observation, interview, testing etc. to produce a case history

Answer 189

- Lockdown notes | - year 13 booklet has it summarised in things such as mind maps!

Answer 190

NEEEDDD TO DO!!

Answer 191

🤩🤠🤪🤓

Answer 192

-inference is going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed

Answer 193

-when there is consistency or comparability between your self concept (how you see yourself) and ideal self (self you would like to be)- they match

Answer 194

- EEG= recording of general brain activity usually linked to states such as sleep and arousal - ERP= elicited by specific stimuli presented to the participant

Answer 195

-draw a diagram with the labelled key structures

Answer 196

1) plausible experimental situation- split visual field 2) Plausible stimulus- visual 3) Plausible task- visual-verbal

Answer 197

- always have units - always show working - define how you will operationalise or identify how they have operationalised variables

Answer 198

-variables such as conditions, instructions, articles, gender, sample, method...

Answer 199

-ensures it is truly representative because includes different types of people eg: males and females and are represented in the sample with the correct proportions

Answer 200

- what is general conclusion - then justify and apply to question eg: supported by the difference in mean fluency scores which show more verbal mistakes - add in evidence from table, perhaps even do a bit of maths eg: on average 6 more mistakes in task

Answer 201

- a measure of dispersion is less easily distorted by a single extreme score - takes into account all scores from the mean - less likely to sqew

Answer 202

-this means that there is a less than 5% likelihood that this difference would occur if there is no real difference between the conditions and the researchers would have 95% confidence level

Answer 203

- asking other people if verbal errors are a good measure of verbal fluency (face validity) - giving participants an alternative/ established verbal fluency test and check to see that the two sets of data are positively correlated- concurrent validity

Answer 204

1) prevents dissemination of irrelevant findings/ unwarranted claims/ unacceptable 2) Ensures published research is taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinised 3) increases probability of weaknesses/ errors being identified- authors and researchers are less objective about their own work

Answer 205

 Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research  Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s  Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes  Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus  An experience was analysed in terms of its components parts eg sensations, emotional reaction etc.  His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes eg by cognitive psychologists.

Answer 206

✅Likely strengths: control/objectivity in research; use of models for ease of understanding; links to neuroscience and consequent applications ❌Likely limitations: still requires inferences about cognitive processes; mechanistic approach to understanding human behaviour

Answer 207

 The concept of the unconscious and role of unconscious in behaviour  Tripartite structure of the personality – id, ego, superego  Psychosexual stages of development  Conflicts – Oedipus and Electra  Defence mechanisms  Psychodynamic approach to therapy – psychoanalysis

Answer 208

 Negativity of Freud in relation to the positive outlook of humanistic psychology  Emphasis on repressed thoughts and emotions, and past experiences (Freud) versus emphasis on subjective experience of the present and personal growth in the future  Emphasis on unconscious drives/motives versus conscious awareness and experience  Psychic determinism (Freud) versus free will and rational choice  Directive versus non-directive approach to therapy

Answer 209

 Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla in response to activation of the sympathomedullary pathway.  Adrenaline has a range of effects on the body  Direct effects of adrenaline – increase heart rate – constricts blood vessels, increasing rate of blood flow and raising blood pressure – diverts blood away from the skin, kidneys and digestive system – increases blood to brain and skeletal muscle – increases respiration and sweating  The general effects of adrenaline – prepare the body for action, fight or flight, – increase blood supply/oxygen, to skeletal muscle for physical action – increase oxygen to brain for rapid response planning

Answer 210

- The likelihood of the same differences occurring twice (or more), by chance alone are much smaller than when they occur the first time. - Effects that occur in a study are more likely to be reliable if they occur in a repeat of the study – replication therefore increases (external) reliability.

Answer 211

- A Type I error occurs when a researcher claims support for the research hypothesis with a significant result when the results were caused by random variables - A Type II error occurs when the effect the researcher was attempting to demonstrate does exist but the researcher claims there was no significance in the results/erroneously accepts the null hypothesis - The difference is that in a Type I error the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true and in a Type II error it is retained when it is false.

Answer 212

personality is made up of 3 parts; the id, ego and superego. This point is essential for 4 marks. • elaboration regarding the components • the id: Focuses on self (selfish), irrational and emotional, deals with feelings and needs, seeks pleasure/hedonistic (reference to ‘pleasure principle), formed from birth-18mo, unconscious part of the mind • the ego: Rational, balancing the id and superego, reference to ‘reality principle’, formed between 18mo-3yrs, conscious part of the mind • the superego: Reference to ‘morality principle’, acts as the conscience or moral guide, based on parental and societal values, formed between 3-6yrs, unconscious part of the mind • elaboration regarding the dynamic nature of the three components • experience/conflicts in childhood shape the development of the 3 parts affecting how a person behaves • description of the levels of consciousness

Answer 213

* limited application of the humanistic approach due to its abstract concepts * the humanistic approach is not reductionist which may improve validity * humanistic approach lacks empirical evidence to support its claims * consideration of influence eg. counselling, theoretical influence etc. * discussion regarding whether behaviour is due to free will or environmental factors * credit use of evidence to discuss the different explanations when made relevant to the stem • comparison with alternative approaches in terms of evaluation and/or application.

Answer 214

-A Type II error would occur where a real difference in the data is overlooked as it is wrongly accepted as being not significant, accepting the null hypothesis in error (a false negative).

Answer 215

The 5% level is used as it strikes a balance between the risk of making the Type I and II errors

Answer 216

-An observation would be more appropriate because a self-report method like a questionnaire would lead to socially desirable answers/lying/self-delusion/misremembering, so would not reflect what really happens, so the data would lack validity.

Answer 217

-researchers use statistical tests to determine the likelihood that the effect/difference/relationship they have found has occurred due to chance.

Answer 218

• Nominal data as patients are assigned to one of three categories – ‘improved’, ‘deteriorated’ or ‘neither’. • Testing for difference in the number of absences in the year following and prior to treatment. • Repeated measures as the same patients' work records are compared before and after treatment.

Answer 219

-it is/ not significant at the 0.05 level...

Answer 220

-Control for individual differences so that the researcher can be more certain that the effect is not due to characteristics such as gender, personality etc.

Answer 221

-‘S’ is the frequency of the least common difference. There | are 8 positive differences, 2 negative differences and 2 ties. So S=2

Answer 222

1) difference 2) Nominal 3) Repeated measures design

Answer 223

-Pilot studies are small-scale investigations conducted before research

Answer 224

-Any (unintentional) influence of the researcher’s behaviour/characteristics on participants/data/outcome.

Answer 225

- (specific to stem but may overlap with other questions)  provide a standardised script for the interviewers to use so that they all asked the same questions in the same way to avoid any bias in the students’ responses  the interviewers could have been trained to greet the students in the same way and ask questions with a neutral tone  ensure all interviewers were female or all interviewers were male  ensure that the students were interviewed by someone of the same gender as themselves.

Answer 226

📝Test-retest reliability:  content analysis repeated on a second occasion using the same interview data  compare the results of the two separate analysis (number of occurrences of each)  researchers could calculate the correlation between the two ratings  researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation (accept 0.7-0.9) between the test and the re-test. 👥Inter-rater reliability :  use a second person to work with the original researcher  they could read the interviews (separately) and devise a set of categories (and agree operational definitions)  they could tally the occurrences of each of the categories of the interviews (separately)  they could compare their tally charts looking for agreement  researchers could calculate the correlation between the two ratings  researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation (accept 0.7-0.9) between the test and the re-test.

YEAR 13 RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards

(250 cards)