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Psychology > Cognitive > Flashcards

Cognitive Flashcards

1
Q

Memory

A

The process by which we retain info about events that have happened in the past

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2
Q

STM Capacity

A

Very limited capacity 7 +/- 2 - Miller’s magic 7

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3
Q

LTM Capacity

A

Potentially unlimited = hard to measure

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4
Q

Millers Magic 7

A

Tested capacity of STM & found = 7 +/- 2 meaning in every day life we may only remember 7 numbers / letters

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5
Q

Digit Span Test

A

Jacob’s 1887
Given number of digits & Ptp asked to remember in order - inc by 1 digit each time until can no longer remember in order
= 443 females (8-19) North London collegiate school - mean digit span = 9.3 & letter span = 7.3

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6
Q

Strengths of Miller’s Magic 7

A

Theory is based on & supported by research e.g., Jacob’s
J’s research = based on systematic & replicable procedure - Digit span shown as reliable & valid by others

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7
Q

Weaknesses of Miller’s Magic 7

A

J’s research done in 1800s may not = well controlled - could be affected by confounding variables
M’s theory that ppl can remember as many chunks as letters = disproved - shorter span for longer chunks - Simon 1974
Cowan 2001 reviewed a variety of studies into STM & concluded it is likely to be limited to about 4 chunks
Some researchers have looked at STM capacity for visual info & 4 items = limit
M’s work based on others work may have made mistakes

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8
Q

Strengths of Jacob’s Study

A

Based on systematic & replicable procedure - shown to be r & v by others
In controlled environment & large num of ptps = gen to large group of ppl
Created objectifiable method

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9
Q

Weaknesses of Jacob’s study

A

May = IDs
Cannot be gen to rest of society only = young girls
May not have been well controlled like today - confounding variables

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10
Q

STM Duration

A

Limited 18-30 seconds
Most ppl keep info longer by rehearsing- repeating keeps memory active

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11
Q

LTM Duration

A

Unlimited theoretically whole life

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12
Q

Peterson & Peterson 1959 Procedure

A

Investigated probability of recalling info when rehearsal = prevented
Lab exper Repeated Measures 24 intro psych students at Indiana Uni
Ptp given a 3 letter trigram & a number to count back from in 3s / 4s when red light appeared recall = 3-18s

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13
Q

Peterson & Peterson 1959 Findings

A

As delay inc recall ability decreased
Verbal repetition prevents rehearsal from taking place so items being learnt = lost - lasted approx 18 secs

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14
Q

Peterson & Peterson 1959 Criticisms

A

Nonsense trigrams in a lab = low eco val
Relates to 1 aspect of memory & may not apply to all aspects (semantic, episodic & procedural)
Students aren’t like everyone else - clever & younger
Psych students may try to guess the aim may change behav - DCs
Single blind & double blind can combat

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15
Q

Research into STM Duration

A

STM = short duration - P&P suped by Sebrechts (1989) - Ptps asked to unexpectedly recall 3 words did well if recall = immediate after 4 = almost 0 - sups limited duration w/o rehearsal / processing
M recent research shows STM duration is not as P&P thought - Naire (1999) thinks can = 96 secs

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16
Q

Research into STM Duration Criticisms

A

In Naire’s study ptps were asked to recall the same items across trials earlier studies used dif items could lead to interference dec recall
Info remains in STM for quite a while unless overwritten / replaced

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17
Q

Bahrick Procedure

A

Aimed to investigate VLTM in a natural setting w/ personal significance - comp verbal & visual
Sample - 400 Ptp 17-74 various tests - year book used to ensure accuracy
1. Free recall names in grad class 2. Photo Rec 50 photos from their class 3. Name Rec x school friends

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18
Q

Bahrick Findings

A

Tested w/in 15 yrs = approx 90% accurate faces & names
After 48 = 80% for name & 70% for face
Free recall less good 15 yrs = 60% 48 = 30% - LTM lasts longer if visual than verbal as older free recall dec = harder to retrieve w/o stimulus

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19
Q

Bahrick Conclusions

A

Evidence of VLTM - some loss - verbal almost as good as visual - recog better than recall - need stimulating

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20
Q

Bahrick Criticisms

A

Could have looked at yearbook recently - could recall m info - may have met friends recently
Some may know m / some old have mem probs
Eco val not lab exper

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21
Q

Encoding

A

Initial learning of info = how info from sensory input is changed into a form it can be stored
E.g., a word seen may be stored is encoded into a sound / meaning
1st stage of process of memory involves processing info not same in LTM & STM

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22
Q

Visual Encoding

A

Images

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23
Q

Elaborative Encoding

A

Relating to prior knowledge

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24
Q

Tactile Encoding

A

Touch

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25
Q

Organisational Encoding

A

Categorising

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26
Q

Acoustic Encoding

A

Sound

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27
Q

Semantic Encoding

A

By meaning

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28
Q

Baddeley 1966

A

Aim: asses coding in STM (mainly acoustic) & LTM (mainly semantic)
Tested affects of acoustic & semantic similarity recall on 75 Ptp
4 groups given word list - either similar / dissimilar a / s
At recall found ptps had difficulty in remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM
Semantically similar words easy for STM not LTM

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29
Q

Baddeley 1966 Strengths

A

Had controls to prevent extraneous variables from confounding results
Poor hearing could have affected - given hearing test only perfect = used
Took place under controlled conditions in lab = internal val

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30
Q

Baddeley 1966 Weaknesses

A

Used meaningless tasks & stimuli lacked eco val
Some experiments have also shown visual codes used in STM - Brandimore (1992) ptps used visual coding in STM if given visual tasks & prevented from rehearsal b4 recall
Normally we translate visual images into verbal codes but when rehearsal = prevented found to have used visual codes

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31
Q

MSM Forgetting

A

STM has a capacity of 7+/-2 units of info if = full info will become displaced (leads to forgetting)
STM has limited duration b4 it needs to be transferred to LTM if runs our info will decay (leads to forgetting)

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32
Q

Sensory Store

A

Iconic store - visual input - what we see
Echoic store - for auditory - what we hear
Haptic store - tactile input - what we touch

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33
Q

Baddeley 1988

A

Purpose of visual store is to allow us to integrate visual info we exper to = a smooth continuous visual exper
Have to hold SM info from 1 image during a few mili-sec it takes b4 next image is presented
Another func = sift incoming sensory info to avoid overload
SM holds image for a few seconds whilst scanned to decide when attention should go & passed for process

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34
Q

Sperling 1960

A

Ptps asked to stare at cross on screen - shown word grid for 50 milk seconds - asked to recall as many as possible could recall 4-5 aware of m
Change technique = 3 tones 1 for each row show grid & tone played immediately after - average recall = 3 - could have been any row but memory fades too quickly
While thing = 5 recalled (42%) but 1 row = 3 recalled (75%)

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35
Q

Sperling 1960 Evaluation

A

= reliable high control levels
May lack validity doesn’t reflect everyday memory use
Ethical issues = limited right to w/d & debrief = NB due to potential bad performance perception

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36
Q

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)

A

Condition 1 immediate recall
Condition 2 distractor task

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37
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

Words better recalled from start - primary effect - words = rehearsed & transferred to LTM
Words better recalled from end - recency effect - in STM at start if recall
Middle = less recall

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38
Q

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) Condition 2

A

distractor task disrupted recency effect - words from last part not recalled well = displaced in STM but earlier words not affected as rehearsal meant they had gone into LTM

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39
Q

Central Executive

A

Has overall control - sets task goals - Directs attention to task
Monitors & corrects errors
Starts rehearsal process
Determines how resources are allocated
Limited capacity = key component

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40
Q

Slave Systems

A

Support CE - can be used as storage systems
frees up CE capacity for m demanding tasks
Have separate responsibilities

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41
Q

Phonological Loop

A

Sometimes called inner voice - deals w/ auditory info & preserves word order - limited capacity
Baddeley (1986) subdivided into articulatory process (holds words heard / seen & silently repeats) & phonological store (inner ear holds words heard)

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42
Q

Visuo-spatial Sketchpad

A

Used when planning spatial tasks = limited capacity
Visual / spatial info stored
Subdivided - Logie (1995) passive visual store & visual cache
linked to inner scribe = rehearsal mechanism

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43
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

Baddeley added 2000 realised model needed general store - slave systems deal w/ specific info type
CE has no storage capacity = extra storage & integrates info from other areas

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44
Q

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Positive Evaluation

A

M detail than MSM - dual task expert = used - struggled to complete 2 verbsl / visual tasks = limited capacity - when 1 verbal & 1 visual could complete = 2 stores
Brain damaged patients KF had visual STM X verbal capacity - suggests = 2 stores nut = unique & individualistic not gen

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45
Q

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Negative Evaluation

A

Doesn’t describe LTM link - Cowan (1998) suggested that to explain abilities e.g., text comprehension WMM should have LTM activation - need LTM to understand STM
Some areas = vague & inaccurate some psychs = CE = too vague & doesn’t explain anything probs sev components (Shah & Miyake)
Doesn’t take into account other STM forms - Berz (1995) X musical memory - can listen to instrumental w/o impairing performance on other acoustic tasks

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46
Q

Types of LTM

A

Tulving (1985) = 1st to realise = 3 types & MSM = too simplistic & inflexible

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47
Q

Procedural LTM

A

non - declarative - knowing how
memory for task performance
e.g., walking

48
Q

Semantic LTM

A

declarative - knowing that
memories for meaning, understanding & knowledge

49
Q

Episodic LTM

A

declarative - knowing that
memory for events in individuals life
e.g., birthdays

50
Q

Clive Wearing

A

had procedural & some semantic LTM
could play piano & had knowledge of edu system - no episodic
supports Tulving

51
Q

Types of LTM Evaluation: Clive Wearing

A

clinical evidence - episodic LTM = greatly impaired as consequence of amnesia - had great dif past event but semantic = rela in tact - knew word meanings - procedural = intact could play piano etc

52
Q

Types of LTM Evaluation: Corkin (1968)

A

studied HM - severe anterograde amnesia as result of op = unable to store new LTM but = taught new skill - initially performance = v poor gradually improv - tested sev days later & = able to perform as well - no knowledge of it
could make new procedural memories

53
Q

Types of LTM Evaluation: Brain scan Evidence

A

Tulving (1989) injected self w/ radio active gold - tracked w/ scanner - historical facts blood flow inc at back but childhood expers blood flow at front
but = one person not gen shows dif forms = sep

54
Q

Types of LTM Evaluation: Tulving (1994)

A

got ptps to perform dif tasks & scanned brain w/ PET scan - found episodic = right PFC & semantic in left PFC procedural = cerebellum & basal ganglia
= m gen inc pop val = m specific but semantic found in dif place - no DCs

55
Q

Types of LTM Evaluation: Cohen & Squire (1980)

A

argue only 2 types of LTM - accept procedural as 1 type but argue semantic & episodic = stored together in declarative memory = consciously recalled & procedural = non declarative & unconsciously recalled T sup w/ PET scan

56
Q

Trace Decay (STM)

A

idea info = physically reped as memory trace = fragile & disintegrates if not constantly refreshed after about 20s decayed completely & recall not pos

57
Q

Displacement (STM)

A

STM = lim cap if full then some existing info = pushed out / overwritten

58
Q

Interference

A

1 memory disturbs the ability to recall another - can result in forgetting / distorting a memory 1 / both likely if similar

59
Q

Pro-Active Interference

A

previously learnt info interferes w/ new info you = trying to store e.g., new class names muddled w/ old

60
Q

Retro-Active Interference

A

new memory interferes w/ older ones e.g., can’t remember old class names only new ones

61
Q

Research Into Affects of Similarity

A

McGeoch & McDonald (1931) studied retro active by changing amount of sim between 2 sets of materials - learnt list of 10 words until 100% accuracy then = new list = 6 groups: 1. synonyms 2. antonyms 3. unrelated to OG 4. consonant syllables 5. 3 digit nums 6. control

62
Q

McGeoch & McDonald (1931) Findings

A

when asked to recall OG list most sim - syns = worst recall - interference when = sim

63
Q

Evaluation of Interference: Baddeley & Hitch (1977)

A

asked rugby players to recall names of teams had played - all played same time interval nut some num of intervening games varied due to injury - m games = poorest recall = high val

64
Q

Evaluation of Interference: Limitation of B&H

A

interference can = temp can be overcome by cues
Tulving & Psotka (1977) gave ptps list of words in categories 1 at time not told categories - recall = 70% 1st list but = worse as add new list (pro I) but when given categories (cues) recall inc 70% = temp - not in theory

65
Q

Evaluation of Interference: Lab Studies

A

m sup evidence = lab studies good control of EVs = replicable & reliable but = artificial material = meaningless doesn’t rep everyday life - B&H
not same motivation to remember stimuli in exper recall may dec and effects seem stronger

66
Q

Evaluation of Interference: Cesaro (1967)

A

if tested again (24hrs later) = dig recovery may = temp

67
Q

Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle

A

reviewed research into retrieval failure & discovered a consistent pattern - ESP = if cue = helpful must = present at encoding & retrieval if dif may forget

68
Q

Cue Dependent Forgetting

A

forgetting due to lack of cues
context & state

69
Q

Context Depending Forgetting

A

Golden & Baddeley (1975) divers learnt list of words underwater / on land & then asked to recall on land / underwater = 4 conditions - 40% lower recall in non matching conditions

70
Q

Context Depending Forgetting Evaluation:

A

limited eco val = familiar environ X task = artificial
groups in dif environ = disrupted could have influ
= controlled - reliability = testable
dif to disprove - circular arg
doesn’t consider meaning / motivation
used to improv eye witness testimony

71
Q

Context Depending Forgetting Evaluation: Abernathy (1940)

A

students perform better in tasks if in same room as material learnt & if same instructor

72
Q

State Depending Forgetting

A

when mood / physiological state during recall = dif from mood learnt in
Godwin et al (1969) 48 medical students ptped in 1 day training session & 2nd day test 4 groups = 1. S&S 2. A&A 3. S&A 4.A&S - A = 100 ml of alcohol in blood show signs of intox = 4 tasks 1. avoidance task 2. verbal rote learning 3. word assoc 4. pic recog m errors in AS & SA than AA & SS but not for pic SS = best

73
Q

State Depending Forgetting Evaluation:

A

limited eco val tasks = artificial
DCs dif to disprove - cir arg X meaning / motivation
high control can be replicated & reliably tested
used to improv EW testi

74
Q

State Depending Forgetting Evaluation: Overton (1964)

A

experimented on 2 groups of rates 1 given mild barbiturate & put in maze & taught to escape electric shock
when drug group not drugged couldn’t escape if given shocks could - not influ by DCs

75
Q

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Eye Witness Testimony - Misleading Info

A

aim: investigating leading q affect on mem of event = lab experts & indepen g’s IV: verb DV: esti speed 45 students
7 dif films of traffic accident - given q had to describe & answer specific q’s - How fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed/bumped/contacted/collided?
mean speed = smash: 40.8 col: 39.3 bump: 38.1 hit 34 con: 31.8

76
Q

Response Bias Explanation

A

? wording has no effect on meme just how they decide to answer - when get leading ? e.g., “smashed” encours higher esti

77
Q

Substitution Hypothesis

A

wording changes men - heard “smashed” later inc likelihood to say saw broken glass than if search hit - L&P

78
Q

Positives of Lab Experiments

A

high control results due to IV not CVs
cause & effect - IV affected DV ie dif words = dif recall

79
Q

Negatives of Lab Experiments

A

low eco val doesn’t have emo impact as real incident - know something is happening can pay attention
DCs - Zaragosa & MsCloskey (1989) argue many answers pops Gove in LS’s of EWT = result of DCs want to appear useful so guess

80
Q

Consequence of EWT

A

Foster et al (1994) what you remember as EW can have some v NB consequences not true in studies

81
Q

Further Research: EWT - Misleading Info

A

using red wallet exper Loftus concluded it = mainly peripheral info that = unreliable & can be tampered w/ paps = shown man stealing large red wallet - 98% correctly identified colour - late read brown - unlikely to change other things did

82
Q

Individual Differences: EWT - Misleading Info

A

evidence for older = less accurate e.g., Anastasi & Rhodes (2006) found ppl 18-25 & 35-45 = m accurate that 55-78 but all m accurate when identifying own age group (own age bias) research studies use younger ppl as target - may mean some age groups not less accurate

83
Q

Schemas

A

mental framework of beliefs & expectations that influ cognitive processing - developed from exper helps process info quickly

84
Q

Personal Schemas

A

about specific person e.g., my friend always bites her nails

85
Q

Social Schemas

A

how ppl behave in situs e.g., must queue at checkout

86
Q

Self Schemas

A

focused on knowledge of yourself e.g., I tend to talk to fast

87
Q

Event Schemas

A

focused on patterns of behaviour after specific event e.g., bell rings students pack up

88
Q

Post Event Discussion

A

when EWs discuss a crime they have witnessed testimonies become contaminated - combine info from own & others mem = m inaccurate

89
Q

Loftus & Pickrell (2003)

A

suggested to ptps that they had met Bugs Bunny at Disney yrs earlier = impossible

90
Q

Source Monitoring Theory

A

mems of event = genuinely distorted - EW can recall info about event (accurate & inaccurate) but can’t recall where came from - source confusion

91
Q

Conformity Theory

A

EW mems not actually distorted - only appears to change bc go along w/ account of co-witnesses for soc approval / think others = correct

92
Q

Gabbert et al (2003)

A

supports Post Event Discussion
ptps in pairs each watch video of crime on own = same crime but 2 dif POVs 1 could see elements other couldn’t then discuss
DV = recall of crime

93
Q

Gabbert et al (2003) Findings

A

showed 71% of ptps mistakenly recalled aspects of crime they couldn’t see but picked up from discussion
control group - no PED - recalled 0% of things they couldn’t see = mem conformity - ptp goes along w/ other witness

94
Q

Positive Impact of Anxiety on Eye Witness Testimony

A

stress of witnessing crime creates anxiety through physiological arousal - triggers f/f inc alertness & ensuring we pay attention improving mem of event

95
Q

Positive Impact of Anxiety Evaluation

A

Yuille & Cutshall (1986) showed EWs of real life incident had remarkable accurate mem of stressful & anxious event involving weapons - recalled accurate, detailed info = corrob by others despite police’s leading questions - suggests anxiety can = detailed & accurate

96
Q

Weapon Focus Effect

A

anxiety caused by seeing a weapon focuses all attention on weapon as a source of danger

97
Q

Stress & Eye Witness Testimony

A

frightening situs may affect recall performance bc of stress

98
Q

Supporting Weapon Focus Effect

A

Loftus et al (1987) reported on study by Johnson & Scott (1976) ptps heard discussion in another room 1. ptps saw man emerge holding pen w/ greasy hands 2. knife & bloody hands (high anxiety) when asked to identify man from 50 photos found 1. = 49% & 2. = 33%
weapon may have distracted & Loftus found when tracked eye movement = drawn to weapon & away from person’s face

99
Q

Negative Impact of Anxiety Evaluation

A

Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
may be surprise not anxiety - Pickel (1998) in hairdressers = 1. scissors 2. wallet 3. raw chicken 4. hand gun accuracy = lower for chicken & gun = high unusualness - not specifically about anxiety

100
Q

Stress & EWT Evaluation

A

Peters (1988) tested ptp who were attending local health clinic for injection met researcher & nurse for equal amount of time & week later asked to identify both recalled researcher better - anxiety impacted mem

Clifford & Scott (1978) found ppl who saw violent film attack remembered fewer of 40 items than control group who saw less violent version - X affect on recall

101
Q

Explaining Contradicting Influence

A

Yerkes-Dodson Curve / Law (1908) performance (mem/recall) = best in mod arousing (stressful) conditions e.g., taking part in an exper - too little not enough attention to inc so can’t concentrate

102
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Curve / Law (1908)

A

Deffenbacher (1983) reviewed 21 studies & hypothesised stress & performance follow inverted U curve if have too much anxiety mem = adversely affected

103
Q

Fisher & Geiseln (1992)

A

reviewed mem lit - recall better w/ cues created cog interview - useful techniques

104
Q

Reverse Order (RO)

A

report episode in sev dif temporal orders backwards & forwards - prevents expectations & lying

105
Q

Changed Perspective (CP)

A

recall from sev POVs imagining how others would have seen crime - disrupts expectations, schemas & lying

106
Q

Report Everything (RE)

A

report every single detail even if trivial / unsure may = NB / trigger other mems

107
Q

Context Reinstatement (CR)

A

mentally recreate environment recall scene weather thoughts feelings & preceding events relates to context depen forgetting

108
Q

Enhanced Cognitive Interview

Fisher et al (1987)

A
  1. minimise distractions
  2. avoid interruption
  3. actively listen
  4. encourage imagery
  5. ask open ended questions
  6. adapt lang to EW
  7. pause after response
  8. avoid judgmental coms
109
Q

Kohnken et al (1999)

A

meta analysis of 53 studies found average of 34% inc in amount of correct info gen inc pop val (ma) but used samples of uni students dec pop val = lab exper dec eco val

110
Q

Milne & Bull (2002)

A

effectiveness of 4 components of CI in undergrads & children comp to control lab exper recall = sim across all 4 compos & no dif to control found RE & CR = best lacks eco val = lab

111
Q

Fisher et al (1990)

A

real police setting Miami trained POs in enhanced CI techniques w/ real EWs sig enhance amount of recall only 1 cul

112
Q

Stein & Memon (2006)

A

comp normal interview technique & CI in Brazil and CI inc amount & detail of info has val cross cut

113
Q

Kebbel et al (1999)

A

survey in UK of POs widespread use of CI but although found useful = concerned about amount of X info gen & time taken to interview use RE & CR but rarely CP & RO

114
Q

Cognitive Interview Evaluation: Time Consuming

A

time consuming to train & = costly Mermon et al detective who had brief training session (4hrs) did produce sig inc in info - Econ implication takes long training to = effective

115
Q

Cognitive Interview Evaluation: Controls

A

hard to evaluate many versions some p forces use some / all = dif to control all variables

Psychology (11 decks)

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