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sem 2 > cognitive (221) > Flashcards

cognitive (221) Flashcards

1
Q

analytic introspection

A

a procedure used by early psychologists in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli

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2
Q

artificial intelligence

A

the ability of a computer to perform tasks usually associated with human intelligence

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3
Q

behaviourism

A

the approach to psychology, founded by Watson, which states that observable behaviour provides the only valid data for psychology

consequence of this idea is that consciousness and unobservable mental processes are not considered worth of study

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4
Q

brain imaging

A

technique such as fMRI that results in images of the brain

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5
Q

choice reaction time

A

time to respond to one of two or more stimuli

ex. Donders experiment

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6
Q

classical conditioning

A

procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response

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7
Q

cognition

A

the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making

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8
Q

cognitive map

A

mental conception of a spatial layout

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9
Q

cognitive psychology

A

branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making

scientific study of the mind and mental processes

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10
Q

cognitive revolution

A

a shift in psychology, beginning in the 1950s from the behaviourist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behaviour in terms of the mind

outcome was the introduction of info-processing approach to studying the mind

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11
Q

electrophysiology

A

techniques used to measure electrical responses of the nervous system

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12
Q

information-processing approach

A

approach to psychology, developed beginning in the 1950s, in which the mind is described as processing information through a sequence of stages

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13
Q

mind

A

system that creates mental representations of the world and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning

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14
Q

neuropsychology

A

the study of the behavioural effects of brain damage in humans

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15
Q

operant conditioning

A

type of conditioning championed by Skinner, which focuses on how behaviour is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers, such as food or social approval, or withdrawal of negative reinforcers, such as shock or social rejection

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16
Q

paradigm

A

a system of ideas, which guide thinking in a particular field

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17
Q

paradigm shift

A

a shift in thinking from one paradigm to another

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18
Q

reaction time

A

the time it takes to react to a stimulus

usually determined by measuring the time between presentation of a stimulus and the response to the stimulus

ex of response. pushing a button, moving the eyes

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19
Q

savings

A

measure used by Ebbinghaus to determine the magnitude of memory left from initial thinking

higher savings indicate greater memory

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20
Q

savings curve

A

plot of savings vs. time after original learning

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21
Q

scientific revolution

A

occurs when there is a shift in thinking from one scientific paradigm to another

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22
Q

simple reaction time

A

reacting to the presence or absence of a single stimulus (as opposed to having to choose between a number of stimuli before making a response)

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23
Q

structuralism

A

approach to psychology that explained perception as the adding up of small elementary units called sensations

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24
Q

what is cognitive psychology

A

the scientific investigation of human mental processes or the way that humans interpret their environment, process information, and form responses

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25
Q

major sub-areas of cognitive psychology

A

perception, attention, memory, language, reasoning, problem solving

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26
Q

cognitive psychology came from?

A

philosophy

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27
Q

empiricism

A

knowledge stems from experience

can be studied with experimentation and observation

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28
Q

first cognitive experiment

A

Donders and reaction time

before this people thought that thoughts were instantanious

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29
Q

structuralist

A

Wundt (organizer)

wanted to explain conscious processes and experience

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30
Q

functionalist

A

James (thinker)

wanted to know how the mind functions and adapts to new circumstances

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31
Q

problem with introspection

A

cannot test a theory with subjective observations

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32
Q

behaviourism famous players

A

Watson- proposed that only behaviour is objectively observable

Skinner- saw behaviourism as a philosophy of the science of psychology

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33
Q

downfall of behaviourism

A
  1. conditioning doesn’t explain all
  2. language
  3. real world problems (pilots and overload)
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34
Q

computer metaphor

A

info-processing systems

representations- stored information (thing being worked on)

process- a “program” that takes info as input and transforms it as output (thing doing the working)

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35
Q

quantitative methods

A

correlational methods
- goal to predict one variable based on another

experiemental methods
- goal to infer that changes in one variable cause changes in another

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36
Q

hypothesis

A

a testable explanation of a phenomenon

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37
Q

a correlation by itself does not tell you the ___ of causation

A

direction

changes in one variable could cause changes in another or vice versa

or another variable may be affecting both (third variable)

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38
Q

experiements involve ___ while correlation studies do not

A

random assignment

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39
Q

confounding variable

A

a variable that correlates with the IV

either it or the IV could have caused the effect

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40
Q

order of lobes from anterior to posterior

A
  1. frontal
  2. temporal
  3. parietal
  4. occipital
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41
Q

neuron

A

basic unit of the brain

multiple types

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42
Q

neuron intensity by __ not by __

A

by rate (of firing), not by size

low intensities: slow firing

high intensities: fast firing

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43
Q

synapse allows firing to..

A

a). amplify stimulis or b) decrease it depending on neurotransmitters

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44
Q

cortex divided into four areas

A

frontal
temporal
parietal
occipital

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45
Q

frontal lobe

A

reasoning, planning, emotion

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46
Q

temporal lobe

A

hearing and memory

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47
Q

parietal lobe

A

perceptions of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

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48
Q

occipital

A

vision

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49
Q

two key principles of cortical functioning

A
  1. contralateral
  2. hemispheric specialization
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50
Q

contralateral

A

receptive and control centers for one side of body controlled by the opposite hemisphere of brain

not the case for eyes, but the visual field is contralateral

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51
Q

hemispheric specialization

A

hemispheres structurally, but not functionally symmetric

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52
Q

methods for localizing brain functon

A
  • lesions
  • electrical recording (ERP)
  • imaging (fMRI, PET, TMS)
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53
Q

lesion studies

A
  • one of the earliest ways
  • observe behavioural ability given neurological deficit (when they die, try to correlate behaviour to brain)
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54
Q

limitations of lesion studies

A

pre and post
3rd variable
incomplete way
correlational

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55
Q

electrical recording: single cell (localizing brain function)

A
  • animal studies
  • record activity of single cell while animal performs task
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56
Q

electrical recording: single cell (localizing brain function) limitations

A

animal brains are not human brains

won’t tell you everything; narrow

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57
Q

electrical recording: event-related potentials (localizing brain function)

A
  • electrical activity recorded with sensors on scalp
  • activity recorded in response to a stimulus over multiple presentations
  • result is an event related potention… electrical activity associated with the stimulus

good temporal resolution

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58
Q

electrical recording: event-related potentials (localizing brain function) limitations

A

horrible spatial resolution
(don’t know where its coming from)

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59
Q

functional imaging: PET (localizing brain function)

A
  • indirect measure of neural events; measurement of cerebral blood flow correlated with neural activity
  • injected with radioactive oxygen that is concentrated in areas that consume more blood

good spatial resolution

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60
Q

functional imaging: PET (localizing brain function) limitations

A

bad temporal resolution

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61
Q

functional imaging: fMRI (localizing brain function)

A
  • indirect measure of neural events
    measurement of cerebral blood flow
  • oxygenated and deoxygenated blood have different magnetic properties
  • machine measures ratio to indicate areas of greatest oxygen usage

good spatial resolution

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62
Q

functional imaging: fMRI (localizing brain function) limiations

A

bad temporal resolution (worse than PET)

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63
Q

action potential

A

propagated electrical potential responsible for transmitting neural information and for communication between neurons

typically travel down a neurons axon

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64
Q

axons

A

part of the neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to the synapse at the end of the axon

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65
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

a condition associated with damage to Broca’s area, in the frontal lobe, characterized by laboured ungrammatical speech and difficulty in understanding some types of sentences

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66
Q

cell body

A

part of a cell that contains mechanisms that keep the cell alive

in some neurons, the cell body and the dendrites associated with it receive information from other neurons

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67
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the 3mm thick outer layer of the brain that contains the mechanisms responsible for higher mental function such as perception, language, thinking, and problem solving

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68
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

field concerned with studying the neural basis of cognition

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69
Q

cortical equipotentiality

A

the idea, popular in the early 1800s, that the brain operates as an indivisible whole, as opposed to operating based on specialized areas

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70
Q

default mode network (DMN)

A

network of structures that are active when a person is not involved in specific tasks

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71
Q

dendrites

A

structures that branch out from the cell body to receive electrical signals from other neurons

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72
Q

distributed representation

A

occurs when a specific cognition activates many areas of the brain

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73
Q

double dissociation

A

situation in which a single dissociation can be demonstrated in one person and the opposite type of single dissociation can be demonstrated in another person

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74
Q

experience-dependent plasticity

A

a mechanism that causes an organism’s neurons to develop so they respond best to the type of stimulation to which the organism has been exposed

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75
Q

extrastriate body area (EBA)

A

an area in the temporal cortex that is activated by pictures of bodies and parts of bodies, but not by faces or other objects

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76
Q

feature dectectors

A

neurons that respond to specific visual features such as orientation, size, or the more complex features that make up environmental stimuli

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77
Q

frontal lobe

A

lobe in the front of the brain that serves higher functions such as language, thought, memory, and motor functioning

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78
Q

functional connectivity

A

the extent to which the neural activity in separate brain areas is correlated with each other

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79
Q

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A

a brain imaging technique that measures how blood flow changes in response to cognitive activity

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80
Q

fusiform face area (FFA)

A

area in the temporal lobe that contains many neurons that respond selectively to faces

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81
Q

hierarchial processing

A

processing that occurs in a progression from lower to higher areas of the brain

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82
Q

levels of analysis

A

a topic can be understood by studying it at a number of different levels of a system

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83
Q

localization of function

A

location of specific function in specific areas of the brain

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84
Q

microelectrodes

A

small wires that are used to record electrical signals from single neurons

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85
Q

multidimensional

A

the multidimensional nature of cognition refers to the fact that even simple experiences involve combinations of different qualities

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86
Q

nerve fibers

A

part of the neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to the synapse at the end of the axon

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87
Q

nerve impulse

A

an electrical response that is propagated down the length of an axon (nerve fiber)

called an action potential

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88
Q

nerve net

A

a network of continuously interconnected nerve fibers (as contrasted with neural networks, in which fibers are connected by synapses)

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89
Q

neural circuits

A

group of interconnected neurons that are responsible for neural processing

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90
Q

neural networks

A

group of neurons or structures that are connected together

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91
Q

neuron doctrine

A

the idea that individual cells called neurons transmit signals in the nervous system and that these cells are not continuous with other cells as proposed by the nerve net theory

92
Q

neurons

A

cell that is specialized to receive and transmit information in the nervous system

93
Q

neuropsychology

A

the study of the behavioural effect of brain damage in humans

94
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical that is released at the synapse in response to incoming action potentials

95
Q

occipital lobe

A

the lobe at the back of the brain that is devoted primarily to analyzing incoming visual information

96
Q

parahippocampal place area (PPA)

A

an area in the temporal lobe that contains neurons that are selectively activated by pictures of indoor and outdoor scenes

97
Q

parietal lobe

A

the lobe at the top of the brain that contains mechanisms responsible for sensations caused by stimulation of the skin and also some aspects of visual information

98
Q

population coding

A

neural representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons

99
Q

prosopagnosia

A

condition caused by damage to the temporal lobe that is characterized by an inability to recognize faces

100
Q

receptors

A

specialized neural structures that respond to environmental stimuli such as light, mechanical stimulation, or chemical stimuli

101
Q

recording electrode

A

when used to study neural functioning, a very thin glass or metal probe that can pick up electrical signals from single neurons

102
Q

reference electrode

A

used in conjunction with recording electrode to measure the difference in charge between the two

103
Q

resting state fMRI

A

the fMRI response recorded when a person is at rest (not involved in any cognitive tasks)

104
Q

resting state functional connectivity

A

a method for determining functional connectivity that involves determining the correlation between the resting-state fMRI in separated structures

105
Q

resting potential

A

difference in charge between the inside and outside of a nerve fiber when the fiber is at rest (no other electrical signals are present)

106
Q

seed location

A

the area of the brain associated with carrying out a specific cognitive or motor task that serves as the reference area the resting-state functional connectivity method

107
Q

sensory code

A

how neural firing represents various characteristics of the environment

108
Q

sparse coding

A

neural coding based on the pattern of activity in small groups of neurons

109
Q

specificity coding

A

the representation of a specific stimulus by the firing of neurons that respond only to that stimulus

110
Q

synapse

A

space between the end of an axon and the cell body or dendrite of the next axon

111
Q

task-related fMRI

A

the fMRI response that occurs in response to a specific cognitive task

112
Q

temporal lobe

A

the lobe on the side of the brain that contains mechanisms responsible for language, memory, hearing, and vision

113
Q

test location

A

when measuring resting-state functional connectivity, the activity at the test location is compared to the activity at the seed location to determine the degree of functional connectivity between the two locations

114
Q

time-series response

A

the way the fMRI response changes over time

115
Q

track-weighted imaging (TWI)

A

a technique for determining connectivity in the brain that is based on detection of how water diffuses along the length of nerve fibers

116
Q

visual cortex

A

area in the occipital lobe that receives signals from the eyes

117
Q

voxel

A

small cube-shaped areas in the brain used in the analysis of data from brain scanning experiments

118
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

a condition, caused by damage to Wernicke’s area that is characterized by difficulty in understanding language, and fluent, grammatically correct, but incoherent speech

119
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

area in the temporal lobe associated with understanding language, damage to this area causes Wernicke’s aphasia

120
Q

Donders

A

did one of the first cognitive psychology experiments

did the experiment of how long does it take to make a decision by measuring reaction time

measured the simple reaction time and choice reaction time

concluded that the decision-making process took one-tenth of a second

demonstrates that mental responses must be inferred from behaviour

121
Q

Wundt’s psychology lab

A

founded the first lab of scientific psychology

approach was structuralism

Wundt wanted to create a periodic table of the mind

using analytic introspection

122
Q

Wundt wanted to…?

A

create a periodic table of the mind

123
Q

Ebbinghaus’s memory experiment

A

what is the time course of forgetting

used a measure called savings

124
Q

savings =

A

original time to learn the list - time to relearn after the delay

used by Ebbinghaus

125
Q

Watson founds what

A

behaviourism

rejects introspection as a method

little albert experiment

126
Q

Skinner

A

operant conditioning

focused on how behaviour is controlled by stimuli, not interested in whats happening in the mind

127
Q

Tolman

A

early cognitive psychologists because he used behaviour to infer mental processes

used rat mazes where eats developed cognitive maps

128
Q

who defined a scientific revolution as a shift from one paradigm to another

A

Kuhn

129
Q

Cherry did what

A

presented participants with two auditory messages and told them to focus attention on one of the messages while ignoring the other

130
Q

Cajel saw what

A

that the nerve net was not continutious

131
Q

centerpiece of the neuron doctrine

A

basic building blocks of the brain

132
Q

basic parts of a neuron

A

cell body
dendrites
axons

133
Q

other conclusions found by Cajel

A

the synapse

neural circuits- groups of interconnected neurons

receptors

134
Q

Cajel recognized as

A

the person who made this cellular study of mental life possible

135
Q

resting potential amount

A

-70 MV

136
Q

how long does an action potential last and whats its shape

A

about 1 millisecond

Adrian found that each action potential travels all the way down the axon without changing its height or shape which makes them ideal for sending signals over difference

137
Q

the mind can be defined as?

A

a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals

**representations

138
Q

principle of neural representation

A

states that everything a person experiences is based on representations in the person’s nervous system

139
Q

Blakemore and Cooper’s experiments

A

experience-dependent plasticity
rearing kittens in vertical or horizontal environments

140
Q

the vision areas make up about __ of the cortex

A

30%

141
Q

neurons in the visual cortex respond to

A

simple stimuli like oriented bars

142
Q

neurons in the temporal lobe respond to

A

complex geometrical stimuli

143
Q

neurons in another area of the temporal lobe respond to

A

faces

144
Q

many cognitive functions are served by the

A

cerebral cortex

145
Q

cerebral cortex

A

layer of tissue about 3mm thick that covers the brain

the wrinkled covering you see when you look at an intact brain

146
Q

early evidence for localization of function came from

A

neuropsychology

147
Q

auditory cortex is located where

A

upper temporal lobe and is responsible for hearing

148
Q

somatosensory cortex located where

A

parietal lobe and is responsible for perceptions of touch, pressure, and pain

149
Q

frontal lobe responsible for

A

the coordination of the senses as well as higher cognitive functions like thinking and problem solving

150
Q

a central principle of cognition

A

most of our experience is multidimensional

151
Q

language system organized into two sets of pathways

A

one processing sounds, speech production, saying words

one understanding sentences

152
Q

episodic memory

A

events in your life

153
Q

semantic memory

A

facts

154
Q

procedural memory

A

physical actions (ex. ride a bike)

155
Q

how to determine whether the responding of 2 areas is correlated

A

resting-state fMRI

introduced by Biswal

156
Q

6 common functional networks determined by resting state fMRI

A

visual

somato-motor

dorsal attention

executive control

salience

default mode

157
Q

TMS

A

uses magnetic fields to disrupt signals

all neurons reach action potential at the same time in one part of the brain

158
Q

what is visual perception

A

interpreting visual information that is sensed by the eyes

159
Q

what is perception

A

involves taking the information that is sensed by the sense organs and interpreting it

160
Q

cornea

A

clear covering to the eye

161
Q

iris

A

a ring of muscles that controls how much light gets in

162
Q

lens

A

with the cornea focuses light on the back of the eye

163
Q

retina

A

the photosenstive membrane at the back of the eye where transduction takes place

164
Q

fovea

A

the point of highest visual acuity

165
Q

optic nerve

A

the nerve that takes visual info to the brain

166
Q

blind spot

A

the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye

167
Q

the eye works like a camera

A

light from the object in the environment passes through the cornea and iris and is refracted onto the retina at the back of the eye

168
Q

transduction

A

the changing of a physical stimulus into neural energy

169
Q

transduction takes place in 2 types of cells in the retina

A

rods- peripheral
cones- in fovea

170
Q

blindsight

A

patients with damage to occipital cortex are blind (no reaction to light)

171
Q

2 separate paths for visual information

A

1 is more sophisticated- goes from the eye to the thalamus to the visual cortext

1 (lizard brain) goes to the brain stem to the higher centers of the brain meaning you can guess movement even though you can’t see it

only aware of end product

172
Q

distal stimulus

A

the stimulus out in the world

173
Q

proximal stimulus

A

the stimulus on the sense organ

174
Q

binocular cues two main types

A

brain uses info from both eyes:

convergence: eyes converge and lens accommodates when objects are close

binocular disparity: the slightly different views of the world projected onto each eye

175
Q

monocular cues

A

brain uses properties from the proximal stimulus:

perspective
motion parallax
interposition
relative size
textural gradient
aerial perspective
shading

176
Q

perspective

A

lines converge at a distance
using context/knowledge

177
Q

relative size

A

bigger things tend to be closer

178
Q

interposition

A

closer objects obscure distant ones

179
Q

motion parallax

A

objects closer to the viewer move past more quickly than objects farther away

180
Q

texture gradient

A

the less detailed the texture to the viewer, the farther away it is

blurring can give the impression of depth

181
Q

aerial perspective

A

the farther something is away, the more there will be a haze to it

182
Q

shading

A

gives cues about depth and movement

183
Q

light and shadow

A

light source is assumed to come from above

184
Q

gestalt psychology

A

early approach that looked at how we segregate and group visual information

“the whole is more than the sum of its parts”

185
Q

gestalt principles- laws of perceptual organization

A

law of proximity
law of similarity
law of good continuation
law of closure
law of common fate
law of pragnanz

186
Q

law of proximity

A

group things together the closer they are and context in which they’re viewed

187
Q

law of similarity

A

groups ones that are more visually similar (ex. colours, shapes)

188
Q

law of good continuation

A

continues even if something’s blocking it

189
Q

law of closure

A

lines connect in an art piece

190
Q

law of common fate

A

different small sections of larger object interpreted as being one when moving together (ex. birds swarming)

191
Q

law of pragnanz (law of simplicity)

A

organization of visual display should be simple, stable, and as consistent as possible

192
Q

bottom-up theories

A

template theory
feature theory
prototype theory

193
Q

top-down processes (theories?)

A

context effects

194
Q

template there

A

bottom-up theory

objects are represented by templates, current image is compared to these

you have a copy of everything you’ve seen in your head and you match it when you see it again

ex. cheque reading machines

195
Q

problems with template theories

A

object has to be same as template

does not account for variability in the world

doesn’t really work

196
Q

feature theories

A

bottom-up theory

analyzed stimuli as a combination of elemental features

recognize an object by searching memory to objects with those features

combining features allows for representation of what’s out there in the world

pandemonium
- greater the match, stronger the signal

has lots of evidence

197
Q

disadvantages of feature theory

A

hard to say exactly which features we have

hard to know how to define a feature

doesn’t account for relative position of feature

198
Q

prototype theories

A

bottom-up theory

prototype is the one “ideal” for a category

perceive object by comparing it to stored prototypes

works at a higher level

takes all representations for item and makes an average; room for differences

199
Q

disadvantages of prototype theories

A

prototypes are more flexible than features but also more vague

criticism with definition

200
Q

bottom-up vs top-down processes

A

bottom-up processing is data driven

top-down processing is conceptually driven

201
Q

top down processing uses

A

context effects

conceptually driven recognition (reading mispelled words)

202
Q

how do we recognize objects

A

object-centered theories
- feature position relative to other features
- recognition by components

203
Q

comparing approaches

A

hemholtz, regularities, and bayes all have in common the idea that we use data about the environment gathered through our past experiences in perceiving to determine what is out there

the gestalt psychologists emphasized the idea that the principles of organization are built in
- argued that built-in principles can override experience; assigning bottom-up processing a central role in perception

204
Q

pathway leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe is called the ___ pathway

A

what

ventral

205
Q

pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe is called the ____ pathway

A

where

dorsal

206
Q

what is selective attention

A

the application of cognitive resources to a task

focusing in on 1 thing

207
Q

cocktail party effect

A

we can attend to only one conversation among many but will notice critical information (such as name being called)

208
Q

dichotic listening experiments (who)

A

Cherry

209
Q

attention is proposed to be an ____ ____

A

early filter

attention acts as filter

210
Q

Treisman’s attenuation theory

A

combines early and late filter models bc early models don’t explain all filter models and late is too heavy

intermediate- selection model
- attended message can be separated from unattended message early in the info processing system

211
Q

capacity

A

the total of our mental resources that can be allocated toward different tasks

212
Q

disadvantages of automacitity

A

hard to override

213
Q

what is attention- two general definitions

A
  1. attention as a mental process
  2. attention as a limited mental resource
214
Q

attentional capacity

A

whether capacity is exceeded depends on the task and also the state of the person
- alertness
-automatic vs. effortful tasks

215
Q

a task is automatic if it

A

occurs without intention

does not give rise to conscious awareness

does not interfere with other mental activities

216
Q

function words

A

“the” and “it”

eyes not fixing in on them; skip over them

217
Q

controlled attention- what is it and what’s it for

A

attention is mental effort and is limited

its for perception

218
Q

feature integration theory

A

Treisman and Gelade

perception occurs in 2 stages
- preattentive (get the physical features)
- attention processes (glue those features together)

attention binds these features from different maps therefore helping perception by gluing stuff together

219
Q

two attentional networks

A

the ventral attention network- controls attention based on salience

the dorsal attention network- controls attention based on top-down processes

220
Q

conjunction errors

A

binding of features into single object, there’s an error

221
Q

some jobs require that ___ be avoided

A

automaticity

such as air traffic controllers, pilots, drivers

222
Q

inattentional blindness

A

when controlled or conscious attention Z(focus on one thing) takes away from noticing other things happening in your environment

magic tricks are an example
- ppl use cues to direct attention to certain places and then perform the trick

223
Q

divided attention

A

not strictly limited to one thing at a time

If two things are automatized, you can do both at same time

test using dual-task procedure

224
Q

psychological refractory period (PRP)

A

a period of time where a new process cannot be initiated due to the continued processing of choosing a response to another stimulus

if second stimulus comes late enough there will be no decrement in performance

response selection bottle neck
- selection of two responses can not be done at same time

225
Q

damage to the right parietal lobe causes ____ ____

A

attentional neglect

ex. the half drawings people completed

sem 2 (5 decks)

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