Cognitive🔢 Flashcards

Question

Theories of categorisation: Prototype theory and criticisms

Answer 1

Metal representation average of all members. Common and distinctive features Cannot explain how people can tell the size of categories e.g. dog breeds Can not explain how members are added to category

Answer 2

Semantic memories form representations Make predictions, extract features Family resemblance- different members of category can share different features Central tendency-categories have an averaged ideal but some deviate Graded membership- some members more typical

Answer 3

Separate representations of physical features of examples (seen before) Can tell category size can add new members Theoretical circularity-how can people retrieve all members to define category it’s based on category membership initially Can not explain how categories without features are formed

Answer 4

Common characteristics rather than physical features | Can be created ad hoc (waterfowl can swim so have webbed feet)

Answer 5

Typicality rating- how good of an example from category it is Exemplar production-recall as many items from category as you can Category membership verification-asked if fits the category or not

Answer 6

Capture commonly encountered aspects of life, predictions | Schemas= order of events temporally ordered

Answer 7

``` Selection Abstraction Interpretation Integration Reconstruction ```

Answer 8

Select info central to schema Study text without context, with context before or with context after Those told context before recalled the most Encoding of schema relevant info

Answer 9

Objects consistent to schema are retrieved 7 or 4 looks like either Ambiguities are converted to abstract representation that captures the meaning and consistent with schema

Answer 10

Filled gaps with schema consistent info “Dropped the glass” Most assumed dropped glass dropped glass was broken

Answer 11

Permissible inferences Chair on box to right of tree, infer chair to right of tree Infer chair to right of tree Integrate schema, schema consistent holistic representations

Answer 12

Meet own schema Reconstruct Native American tale to meet own cultural schema Details reconstructed, simplified Participants recalled items in waiting room of postgrad that wasn’t there

Answer 13

``` Transience Absentmindedness Misattribution Blocking Bias Amnesia Persistence Suggestibility ```

Answer 14

DECAY- forgetting over passage of time Thorndike’s law of disuse: memory decays with longer time it isn’t used Rows of nonsense trigrams, most forgetting is early and continues slowly BUT passage of time causes nothing itself, correlated with forgetting

Answer 15

INTERFERENCE- forgetting from memory competition Proactive- older memories impair retrieval of new Retroactive- newer memories impair retrieval of old Brown-Peterson paradigm- learn trigrams then recall after distracting task (varying hours) better memory with less retroactive interference, remembered if go straight to sleep

Answer 16

Lapses of attention that affect memory In lecture almost half has task unrelated thoughts, caused poorer results in test

Answer 17

Info present but temporarily inaccessible Resolving tip of the tongue may prevent it recurring later

Answer 18

Attribute memories to incorrect source Internal-real/imagined External- who told you Reality- real or heard about

Answer 19

Perceptual- detail highly if memory actually experienced Contextual- context memory acquired is consistent with expected source Affective-emotional reaction Cognitive- mental processing of info

Answer 20

People falsely recall semantically similar words that were never presented

Answer 21

Implement memory which never occurred 25% falsely remember lost in a mall 50% falsely remembered doctored photograph More false beliefs when encouraged to guess, 20% forced confabulation, especially with confirmatory feedback

Answer 22

Distort past memories based on current knowledge and beliefs Hindsight bias- misremember memories as being more similar to current knowledge Recall German election result as more similar to real results that what predicted at first

Answer 23

Unwanted recollections that cannot be forgotten

Answer 24

Deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or trauma Can encode new memories but not explicitly retrieve them (HM) Retrograde-cannot access memories prior to event Anterograde- loss of ability to store new memories after the event

Answer 25

Memory for crime or other dramatic or witnessed event Recognition- identify from mugshots Recall- statement or testimony Loftus and Palmer ‘Smashed’ 2x more likely to say yes to broken glass than hit

Answer 26

Memory replacement theory- overwrites original Blocking theory-original info blocked but still present, retroactive interference Source monitoring- info from other sources mistaken for real memory Loftus- Questioning with consistent misleading info (stop/yield sign) asked with sign seen vs other sign Misleading info alters memory

Answer 27

Watch video with tonic vs alcohol placebo, read info with or without misinformation Those thinking they drank alcohol were more susceptible to misinformation

Answer 28

Navy personnel, group speech with or without doctored video Interrogate with or without photo Questionnaire with or without misinformation All led to false memories, 84% misidentified unrelated photo as interrogator

Answer 29

Children etc more errors ``` Reinforcement/feedback Repeat questions Co-witness information/pressure Invite speculation Introduce new info ```

Answer 30

Read picture book Closed and unanswerable questions= less correct responses Answer given even if don’t understand

Answer 31

Plant memory over 3 interviews Context accurate cues, incontrovertible evidence, social pressure, suggestive retrieval prompts, rapport and facilitators, pages and silence, disappointment and sympathy 70% had false memories of committing crime with police contact but reduced to 26-30% when explicit statement of memory

Answer 32

Yerkes-Dodson U curve- medium stress for optimum memory Easter brook hypothesis- attention and arousal interact to determine cue utilisation more for central details Weapon focus- increased memory for weapon, others decline Unusual item hypothesis- unusual objects attract attention inconsistent with schema

Answer 33

Accuracy-confidence correlation r=.29 Affected by: Confirmatory feedback Repeated questioning- less accurate, more retrieval fluency External motivation-neutral motivation correlated higher with confidence r=.44 than money

Answer 34

Aware of effects on eyewitness memory/ confidence Minimise contamination of memory Double blind procedures minimise unconscious biases Only one suspect with at least 5 known innocent fillers Minimise motivation, tell witness suspect may not be in lineup Assess confidence at identification

Answer 35

Memory probed for first time, not contaminated yet Interview protocols avoid suggestive questions and minimise guessing Investigator sensitive to witness’ level of confidence

Answer 36

``` Reinstate context (encoding specificity principle) Recall from different points Report everything Take different perspectives Don’t interrupt witness ``` Increase in correct details highest for older adults (more influenced by misleading info and prone to source monitoring details)

Answer 37

Emeplar Classical Explanation based Prototype

Answer 38

Exchange of info, acquired from the womb Speak fluently by 3 years Spoken, written or signed words to communicate meaning, requires understanding of syntax

Answer 39

Speaking (vocal-auditory)channel-humans and animals Combine units to create meaning-humans Speech organ, adapted-humans Comprehension (interchangeability)-humans INPUT (speech) ACTIVATE (mental representations of sounds) and LINK TO (meaning) OUTPUT (comprehension)

Answer 40

Way we think is affected by our language Colour perception and word order affected by language Recognise words immediately and link to mental representation and meaning

Answer 41

Speaking and Writing-production Reading and understanding-comprehension

Answer 42

Structure to communicate (subject-verb-object) Activate phonological representation Say out loud (Semantics-syntax-morphology-form)

Answer 43

Ordered by associative semantic network (activate things of similar meanings) linked to form and syntax to express concept

Answer 44

Mechanisms activate words on frequency and semantic and phonological relatedness

Answer 45

Sentence =Noun phrase + verb phrase Noun phrase= determiner + noun Verb phrase= verb

Answer 46

Morpheme-smallest meaningful unit of sound Free morphemes-e.g. cat Suffix-catS Preffix-UNderstood

Answer 47

Roughly 40 | Graphemes represent phonemes

Answer 48

Context | Grice’s Maxims= quality, quantity, relation, manner

Answer 49

Similar meanings and similar sounds compete for selection

Answer 50

More hesitations humanities lectures, synonyms compete for attention Slip of tongue from same category Phrases planned, words slotted in with syntactic/morphological elements left in place

Answer 51

Semantic blend error “spork” Semantic and morpheme exchange “slicely thinned” Word and phoneme exchange “Lork yibrary”

Answer 52

Activation and competition between related items. Blocked retrieval of target word Fragment competition task-asked to fill in blanks, related words compete for selection Italian speakers-know noun gender but can’t access (syntax and form processed differently)

Answer 53

Sounds overlap, variations in how phonemes are produced | Sound changes when followed with different articulation (‘n’ in thin pronounced differently when proceeds a ‘b’ or ‘c’)

Answer 54

Problems understanding- fail to link phonemes with meaning | Reverse process for speech

Answer 55

Input (speech) Activate (mental representations of sound) and Link to meaning Output (comprehension) Comprehension: speech, form, syntax and morphology, semantics

Answer 56

SPEECH (acoustic input)-hard to tell where one word ends and begins WORD LEVEL-similar sounds or spellings with different meanings PHONEME LEVEL- words change the way they sound depending on context

Answer 57

Homonyms- words and sound spelt the same (Bank and bank) Homophones-words sound the same (mussel and muscle) Holographs-words spelt the same but different sound (read and read)

Answer 58

Different constants-air hits point in mouth Place of articulation-causes obstruction, constant sound Coarticulation- sounds change in sentence when followed by sound with different articulation

Answer 59

Perceive sounds at one end of continuum or another (instead of processing all variation between two sounds) infants can distinguish between phonemes

Answer 60

Point at which vocal chords vibrate relative to release of closure (voice onset time)

Answer 61

Syntax of a phrase is processed before phonology

Answer 62

P vibration begins instantly | B pause after, vibration then begins

Answer 63

Unable to define categories of sounds, difficult to identify common features that correspond to phonemes (in accents)

Answer 64

Phonological representation of word allows us to still understand

Answer 65

Match input to existing mental representations to understand oncoming language More frequently used words are recognised faster, multiple morphemes take longer to recognise. Similar spelling slower to recognise

Answer 66

Easier/quicker to access words used frequently with fewer neighbours

Answer 67

Press for ‘word’ or non word and assess speed | Quicker reaction time for words with fewer neighbours

Answer 68

Say word quickly as possible when heard in sentence Measure delay period until word is said If made sense ( meaningful context): say word quicker, comprehend meaning before next word is heard- phonological representation already activated

Answer 69

CROSS MODAL: primed with visual and auditory target at same time, asked if visual word is real or not CAPT (captain or capture) Related to either ship or slave or unrelated Quicker reaction to both related words than unrelated If presented half way through word=primed for both outcomes. If primed at end of word, unrelated concepts are deactivated

Answer 70

Fundamental to learning, explain behaviours and habits Relevant for drug addiction e.g. cues and relapse Precise stimuli, well controlled experiments Can generalised to more complex learning Apply to AI in teaching Types of learning is similar across species Functional analogies: same learning function implemented differently in structural brains

Answer 71

US- UR US+CS-UR CS-UR

Answer 72

Unconditioned stimulus can also be aversive, understanding phobias, anxiety ``` One shot (single trial) learnt quickly and long lasting Evolutionary principle to think stimulus caused response to avoid it for safety ```

Answer 73

Remove unconditioned stimulus to see how strong the associations are. Present conditioned stimulus alone Reduction in response to CS is extinction new associations learnt much faster however

Answer 74

Resting period between last day of extinction and test trail Response to CS returns Original learning not completely erased

Answer 75

Introduce another stimulus (shares resemblance) Respond with CR to new stimulus We are not overtrained in specific examples

Answer 76

Similar stimulus but do not respond with CR to new stimulus | Pay attention to differences

Answer 77

Pair similar conditioned stimulus with conditioned (CS1 + CS2) - CR CS1 acts as US CS2 also triggers conditioned response Learning in longer chains of associated stimuli

Answer 78

Trial-single presentation of a CS-US Block-several traits, specific parameters Session- one or more blocks, sessions usually separated by intervals (hours/days)

Answer 79

Random trials where CS is not followed by US. Slowed acquisition and extinction (difficult to link)

Answer 80

Fixed ratio-behaviour reinforced after specific number of responses Variable ratio-behaviour reinforced unpredictable number of responses (high responses despite low enforcers) Fixed interval-behaviour reinforced after specific amount of time Variable interval-behaviour reinforced after unpredictable amount of time

Answer 81

Trace conditioning-gap between CS offset and US onset Delay condoning-CS offset overlap with US onset Delay is easier learn (no time gap)Time gap requires hippocampus

Answer 82

Pair CS1 with US and add in CS2 alongside | Presenting CS2 alone does not trigger UR

Answer 83

US presented when animal performs behaviour, outcome reinforced or punished Thorndike’s law of effect- more likely to repeat behaviour that has a pleasant outcome in similar situation Positive reinforcement-reward Negative reinforcement- remove unpleasant Positive punishment-unpleasant is present Negative punishment-remove pleasant reward

Answer 84

Pigeons peck keys for large or small reward | Bigger reward=faster learning initially but levels off

Answer 85

Divide learning goal into stages, reinforce individual steps

Answer 86

Primary reinforcer- stimuli naturally preferred Secondary reinforcer-neutral event associated with primary reinforcer e,g, bell for food

Answer 87

Basis for intelligent behaviour, overrides reflective habitual responses for more complex goals Gathers info from memory systems and interacts with motor systems Top down processing-higher order goals

Answer 88

Birds do not have neocortex Pallium more like a cortex (grey and white matter covering cerebellum) Nidopallium (NCL) is functionally compared to mammalian prefrontal cortex, contains caudolateral

Answer 89

Living hierarchy, simple to more complex | Assumes only humans have insight related cognition (neocortex)

Answer 90

Delayed response task, left or right light for 1 sec, 2-3 sec delay before has to move lever in direction of light Neurons increase activity in delay period to hold in working memory or decrease when doesn’t need to

Answer 91

Before learning-spike in dopamine after reward After learning- spike after conditioned stimulus ( not reward) Reward omission (decrease in responses after but spike still after conditioned stimulus)

Answer 92

Dopamine tag sensory cues as relevant Neurons show delay activity while item kept in working memory Delay between stimulus and choice may be basis for working memory

Answer 93

Directed forgetting, record activity in NCL Remember: pecks sample, remember cue, delay and test period Forget: animal pecks sample cue, forget cue for 2 secs Activity increase in remember cue phase and delay (holds in WM) and test period Forget trials: activity activated but decreases as doesn’t hold info in WM

Answer 94

Delayed match to sample task, choose from 4 options after delay Selection performance above chance Sample selective neuron (selective during samples) distinguishes samples with firing rate Delay selective neuron (selective during delay) More than half neurons were either sample or delay selective or both Firing rate of neurons does not distinguish different stimuli as well as in correct trials

Answer 95

Delay activity in NCL bridges time gap between stimulus and choice, neural basis for working memory Neural circuits for WM have probably evolved several times and do not require neocortex NCL and prefrontal cortex might be functionally analogue

Answer 96

Delayed match to sample task in a tunnel short delay: high performance WM up to 6 seconds Incorrect pattern:still identify correct sample

Answer 97

Pick stimulus from sample or pick stimulus not from sample Visual/auditory cue determines which Measure NCL activity High NCL firing for non match, low for match rule

Answer 98

Two samples in tunnel First indicates correct pattern OR second indicates correct pattern Can learn both

Answer 99

New visual stimuli in tunnel Still performs above chance Indicates bees can generalise to more abstract task rule

Answer 100

Delayed match to sample Match odour at entrance to one in decision chamber Perform above chance, cross modal transfer of learning

Answer 101

Self recognition Theory of mind Object permanence

Answer 102

Yellow dot on bird, looks in mirror Mark directed behaviour (touch mark with foot or beak) Self directed behaviour (touch other body parts) Activity towards mark (mark directed behaviour divide by self directed behaviour) Birds show significant MARK DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR

Answer 103

Neural mechanisms enable self recognition, evolved several times in vertebrates Laminated cortex not a necessity for self recognition Evidence against scala naturae and cortex is special

Answer 104

Raven on ground (focus) given food and hides it. Another raven observes it (visible to focus) and control cannot see where food is (blind) Either sighted or blind observer taken out with focus When focus is with observer, focus hides food again twice as often. Aware the bird has knowledge of where the food was

Answer 105

Focus observes ground bird hide food, has a blind co-observer and sighted co-observer Focus bird taken out with blind OR the other sighted bird with hider Focus runs to food when with co-observer (knows he saw too) much faster than with blind. Take longer with blind time make it seem like he doesn’t know either Distinguishes between different levels of knowledge

Answer 106

Higher Piagetian stages develop gradually as bird ages. Step from 4 to 5 is challenging- A not B error before stage 5 (search where object was hidden previously) Can reach full object permanence

Answer 107

Rodents have cortex unlike birds Rodents easy to maintain, birds hand reared Rodent episodic memory, birds several forms of insight related cognition Rodents strong olfaction, birds visual and auditory (like humans) Rodents bad for cognitive ageing vs birds live long time Rodents can use ontogenetics unlike birds

Cognitive🔢 Flashcards

(131 cards)