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Cognitive Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the brain as a computer metaphor:

A
  • Storage system receiving info from the environment
  • Processes info+ gives an output
  • Computer hardware is structure of brain
  • Software is experiences we have
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2
Q

What is the most commonly used real search method in cognitive psychology?

A

Experimental research (lab experiments)

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3
Q

What is cognitive psychology?

A

Study of patients with brain damage to determine the impact of the damage capacity + functioning

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4
Q

Name the type of therapy that uses cognitive ideas:

A

Cognitive behavioural therapy

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5
Q

List four topics commonly studied in cognitive psychology:

A
  • Memory
  • Thinking
  • Language
  • Problem solving
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6
Q

How might the nature/nurture debate be relevant to cognitive psychology?

A

Thoughts and feelings due to inherited characteristics and others believe they are learned

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7
Q

Explain 4 assumptions of cognitive psychology:

A
  • Humans are info processors
  • Mind operates in similar way to computer
  • Internal mental processes can + should be investigated
  • Thoughts influence behaviour - act as as mediational processes between stimulus + behavioural response
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8
Q

What was the Aim of the case study of Henry Molaison?

A

Find out the effect of his brain surgery on his functioning, his memory in particular

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9
Q

What was the Procedure of the case study of Henry Molaison?

A 
Methods used while studying:
•Observations
•Interviews
•Experimental tasks 
•Standardised IQ tests
•Standardised memory tests
•MRI scans taken of his brain during his life + after death
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10
Q

What was the Results of the case study of Henry Molaison?

A
  • Had memories up to 16 years old (11 years before surgery)
  • Forgot daily events
  • Underestimated his age
  • Forgot names of people
  • Couldn’t learn new words
  • Unable to encode temporary STM into LTM
  • Had normal intelligence
  • Spatial memory still intact
  • Could acquire new motor skills
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11
Q

What was the Conclusions of the case study of Henry Molaison?

A
  • Memory is a distinct cerebral function
  • Medial temporal lobe is important for memory
  • Multiple memory systems in brain
  • Distinction between STM and LTM
  • Distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory
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12
Q

Who was the neurosurgeon that studied Henry Molaison:

A

William Scoville

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13
Q

What was the experimental procedure Henry Molaison had?

A
  • Bilateral mesial temporal lobe restriction

* Removed hippocampus

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14
Q

What were the results of the removal of Henry Molaison hippocampus?

A
  • Controlled his epilepsy mostly

* But had serious effects on his memory

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15
Q

What is epilepsy?

A

Neurological condition that affects the brain and causes repeated seizures

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16
Q

What is the background of Henry Molaison?

A
  • At 7 - fell of bike
  • At 10 - had minor epileptic seizures
  • After 16 - had major seizures
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17
Q

What is Declarative memory?

A

Memory of facts and events

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18
Q

What is Non-Declarative memory ?

A

Unconscious memory of skills and how to do things

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19
Q

Describe the Generalisability of the case study of Henry Molaison:

A
  • Low as it’s a unique case

* Only one person

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20
Q

Describe the Reliability of the case study of Henry Molaison:

A
  • Low un reliability
  • Can’t replicate as its a case study and unique
  • Would be unethical to replicate
  • Longitudinal study (studied for 50+ years)
  • Standardised IQ tests and memory tests so high in reliability in that case
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21
Q

Describe the Applicability of the case study of Henry Molaison:

A
  • Applied to future research - looking into hippocampus related to memory
  • Help scientists understand how memory is formed and stored
  • Useful explanation of cognitive neuropsychology - high in scientific credibility
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22
Q

Describe the Validity of the case study of Henry Molaison:

A
  • Longitudinal study - get good picture of what person is like
  • Lots of different data techniques
  • A lot of info + tests which makes info more valid - many professionals visited, William Schoville especially w/ extensive notes
  • Experimental tests aren’t reflected of real life, but also observed in natural environment
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23
Q

Describe the Ethics of the case study of Henry Molaison:

A

Unethical:
•Had 100 people test on him so stressful + physically painful
•William Schoville removed area of his brain - was essential to him as memory gone now
•Lacking informed consent - HM won’t remember he been studied day before, etc
•Invasion of privacy - some studies done in his home
•Some tasks upsetting for him + traumatic

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24
Q

What is a Strength of Qualitative Data in Cognitive Psychology?

A
  • Get in-depth Info
  • Produces rich detailed data
  • Results can be used for future research
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25
What is a Weakness of Qualitative Data in Cognitive Psychology?
* Difficult to interpret * Lacks validity * Takes a long time to gather useful info * Could lose a lot of essential info
26
Describe the steps used in Qualitative Research:
* Create research question * Collect data - interviews, questionnaires, speech analysis * Transcribe data * Looks for themes+ideas - thematic analysis * Reach conclusions based on themes + answer research question * Explain + justify conclusions using evidence from analysis
27
What is a Strength of using case studies of brain damaged patients to inform us on how memory works?
* Take a long time - increase validity * Get to know what the person is like and can study in a lot of detail * Gather useful info
28
What is a Weakness of using case studies of brain damaged patients to inform us on how memory works?
* Only based on 1 person - not generalisable * Unique case * Can’t replicate so low in reliability * High attrition rates - researcher might give up as takes too long
29
How does the issue of individual differences relate to the use of case studies in cognitive psychology?
* Extent brain damage + response of individual patients to damage highlights important individual differences * Be careful not to generalise the findings of these unique cases to our overall understanding of memory in total population
30
What is the Encoding for Sensory Memory?
* Sight * Smell * Sound * Taste * Touch
31
What is the Capacity for Sensory Memory?
3-4 items
32
What is the Duration for Sensory Memory?
Half a second
33
What is the Retrieval for Sensory Memory?
Scan through
34
What is the Forgetting for Sensory Memory?
Decay
35
What is the Encoding for Short Term Memory?
Acoustic
36
What is the Capacity for Short Term Memory?
5-9 Items
37
What is the Duration for Short Term Memory?
Up to 30 Seconds
38
What is the Retrieval for Short Term Memory?
Sequential search
39
What is the Forgetting for Short Term Memory?
Displacement
40
What is the Encoding for Long Term Memory?
* Semantic - add meaning | * Temporal - time
41
What is the Capacity for Long Term Memory?
Potentially Limitless
42
What is the Duration for Long Term Memory?
Potentially limitless
43
What is the Retrieval for Long Term Memory?
Doing a semantic or temporal search
44
What is the Forgetting for Long Term Memory?
* Interference | * Decay - haven’t had to access before
45
What is the arrow from Sensory Memory to Short Term Memory?
Attention
46
What is the arrow from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory?
Rehearsal
47
Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi Store Model:
* Linear model * Info processing model - describes memory like a computer * There are memory stores and control processes * There are 3 memory stores - sensory, short term, long term
48
What are the memory stores in this model according to the info processing/computer analogy?
Computer hardware
49
What is Research on Long Term Memory?
Brady et all (2008): •Show Ps 2500 objects over 5.5 hours •Demonstrated that thousands of images can be maintained successfully in the long term store and the capacity is potentially limitless
50
What is Research on Short Term Memory for Rehearsal and Duration?
Peterson and Peterson (1959): •Interference task done •Ps had to remember a trigram •Then has to read it for it •Found performance dropped rapidly after 15-18 secs •Concluded that decay occurs in ST store over period of 15 secs
51
What is Evidence for Multi-store Model of Memory?
* Case studies of brain damaged patients - Henry Molaison unable to transfer mee info from ST to LT - suggests there are 2 separate stores * Primacy recency effect - we forget things in middle of a list - remember beg due to LTM and end due to STM - supports idea of 2 separate stores
52
What is Evidence Against for Multi-store Model of Memory?
* Research shows that rehearsal doesn’t transfer info to LTM - Bekerian + Baddeley (1980) found people didn’t know that BBC radio wavelengths were changing, despite hearing info 1000 times on radio - shows that model over emphasise rehearsal * Model isn’t linear - ppl use LTM to help STM - Morris (1985) found ppl who liked football made more accurate predictions on the scores than ppl who didn’t like football - suggest they used LTM to impose meaning on info to help w/ recall
53
What is a Strength of the Methodology for the Multi-store Model of Memory?
Lab experiments: •Use standardised procedures •Can be replicated •Researcher can manipúlate the IV and can infer a cause and effects •Increases scientific credibility •E.g. Baddeley investigates the effect of acoustic + semantic similarity on memory for word sequence
54
What is a Weakness of the Methodology for the Multi-store Model of Memory?
Lab experiments: •E.g. Peterson + Peterson (1959) - used artificial tasks in artificial lab setting •Artificial nature of task + setting - doesn’t reflect how memory works in everyday life •Low in ecological validity •Reductionist - gives limited understanding of memory
55
What are the Applications for the Multistore Model of Memory:
Idea that rehearsal helps memory has been widely accepted and used in educational practice such as revising for exams
56
Describe Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model:
* 3 Components - Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad * Episodic buffer
57
What is the Role of the Central Executive in WMM?
* Deals w/ the running of the memory system * Decides what info to pay attention to * Allocates info to slave systems * Deals with cognitive tasks
58
What is the Articulatory Rehearsal System in WMM?
* Inner voice | * Linked to speech production
59
What is the Phonological store in WMM?
* Inner ear | * Linked to speech production
60
What does the Episodic Buffer do in the WMM?
Integrates visual + verbal info from other slave systems
61
What are the Applications for Working Memory Model?
Suggests strategies to improve memory - such as not attempting to do 2 tasks that use the same slave system simultaneously
62
What is a Strength of the Methodology in Working Memory Model?
Lab experiments: •Use standardised procedures - can replicate in different circumstances •Can manipulate the IV - allows us to infer cause + effect •Increases scientific credibility •E.g. Baddeleys research investigates effect of acoustic + semantic similarity on memory for word sequences
63
What are the Weaknesses of the Methodology in Working Memory Model?
* Low ecological validity - lab experiments so artificial tasks + setting used - won’t reflect how empeora is in everyday life - describes as reductionist as for a limited understanding * Low in validity - criticised for being incomplete - little evidence for how central executive works + doesn’t explain sensory or LTM
64
What is the Supporting Evidence for the Working Memory Model?
* Dual task experiments - Baddeley + Hitch - suggests that both tasks were completing for resources of the VSSP as Ps struggled to do both tasks at the same time - also support for separate visual + verbal slave systems * Neurophysiological evidence - PET scans shown different areas of brain are used while doing verbal + visual tasks * Case studies - K.F suffered impaired STN - had digit span 1, but had intact visual store
65
Compare Working Memory Model and Multistore Model of Memory in Describing Short Term Memory:
* WMM - describes STM as having number of components | * MSM - describes STM as single unitary store
66
Compare Working Memory Model and Multistore Model of Memory in Keeping Information Active in Memory:
* WMM - says although maintenance rehearsal is a way that memory is kept active, it’s not only way of doing this * MSM - emphasises role of maintenance rehearsal in keeping info in active memory
67
Compare Working Memory Model and Multistore Model of Memory in Emphasising:
* WMM - Emphasises the process of memory | * MSM - Emphasised the way memory is organised as a system
68
Compare Working Memory Model and Multistore Model of Memory in Links to Long Term Memory:
* WMM - emphasis important of LTM in STM processing | * MSM - emphasises idea that STM is a stopping point for info on the way to forgetting or LT storage
69
What was the Aim of Baddeley (1966)?
To investigate the influence of acoustic + semantic word similarity on learning + recall in STM + LTM
70
What was the Procedure of Baddeley (1966)?
* 4 trials of - see word list, 6 eight digit sequence recall task, recall of word list for 1 min * Interference task - copying sequences of digits for 15 mins * Re-test - recall of word list in correct order
71
What was the Results of Baddeley (1966)?
* Acoustic similarity - no group show evidence of forgetting between test 4 + re-test * Semantic similarity - no list show any forgetting, slower learning as by trial 4 scores were higher on list D than C * STM has influence on acoustic encoding - show by difficulty of learning the list of acoustically similar words * LTM uses semantic coding
72
What was the Conclusions of Baddeley (1966)?
* Ps found harder to recall list A in initial learning phase * At retest - list C - impaired the most - suggests that encoding in LTM is largely acoustic
73
What were the 4 word lists in Baddeley (1966)?
* A-acoustically similar words * B-acoustically dissimilar words * C-Semantically similar words * D-Semantically dissimilar words
74
What was the Sample of Baddeley (1966)?
72 men + woman from Applied Psychology Unit subject panel at Cambridge University
75
What is the Generalisability of Baddeley (1966)?
* Generalisable as uses females + males * Not generalisable- Ps from Cambridge uni so have certain level of intelligence + know about psychology + age is around 20
76
What is the Reliability of Baddeley (1966)?
High in reliability: •Easy to replicate •Uses standardised procedures - saw words for 3 secs, had 1min to write down, all saw it on projector, same equipment used •Lab experiment
77
What is the Applicability of Baddeley (1966)?
* Used for educational purposes - teaching + revision | * This helped develop the Working Memory Model
78
What is the High Validity of Baddeley (1966)?
Internal validity: •Controlled extraneous variables •Hearing test before - controls •Having word list visible - controls
79
What is the Low Validity of Baddeley (1966)?
* Low in mundane realism - tasks they do are unrealistic | * Low in ecological validity - lab experiment so setting is not their normal setting
80
What are the Ethics of Baddeley (1966)?
Highly ethical: •Got consent •No need to debrief •Protected from harm
81
Describe Tulving’s explanation of Long Term Memory?
•LTM divided into procedural knowledge + declarative which included semantic + episodic memory
82
What is Semantic Memory?
* Facts * General knowledge * Language * Remembered info about the world
83
What is Episodic Memory?
Personally experienced events
84
What are Examples of Semantic Memory?
* The capital of France is Paris * There are 12 months in the year * The battle of Hastings was in 1066
85
What are Examples of Episodic Memory?
* Holiday in Spain last year * Lunch with Naomi last week * My first day at school
86
Name 6 ways in which Semantic and Episodic memory differ?
* Forgetting * Retrieval * Time referencing * Independence * Spatial referencing * The nature of the memory
87
What is the Nature of Memory for Semantic Memory?
* Mental encyclopaedia * Organised body of knowledge * Memories associated with other facts * Concepts link together
88
What is the Nature of Memory for Episodic Memory?
* Mental diary | * Info is LinkedIn to a time and a context
89
What is the Time Referencing for Semantic Memory?
Memories are detached from any time reference
90
What is the Time Referencing for Episodic Memory?
Memories are dependent on time referencing
91
What is the Spatial Referencing for Semantic Memory?
Input is fragmented as we can piece facts together that have been learnt at different times
92
What is the Spatial Referencing for Episodic Memory?
Input is continuous as we can experience somthing in some temporal frame of reference
93
What is Retrieval for Semantic Memory?
* Doesn’t depend on the context | * Based on inferences, generalisation + rational, logical thought
94
What is Retrieval for Episodic Memory?
Retrieval depends on the context in which event was initially learnt/experienced
95
What is Independence for Semantic Memory?
Can operate independently of episodic memory
96
What is Independence for Episodic Memory?
Unlikely to operate without semantic memory
97
What is Forgetting for Semantic Memory?
Memory trace more robust + less susceptible to being changed
98
What is Forgetting for Episodic Memory?
Memory trace can be transformed/changed when we retrieve it
99
What is the Applications for Tulving’s Theory of Long Term Memory?
* The relationship between semantic and episodic memory is useful for aiding memory recall * E.g. strong episodic memories are easy to retrieve, so semantic knowledge can be encoded as episodic memories * Beneficial for exam revision
100
What is a Strength of the Methodology for Tulving’s Theory of Long Term Memory?
Use of brain scanning techniques to investigate the model increases scientific credibility of the theory
101
What is the Weakness of the Methodology for Tulving’s Theory of Long Term Memory?
* Methods of testing semantic + episodic memory lack validity * Because, they can’t be studied in isolation from one another * E.g. learning a list of words use both episodic + semantic features
102
What is the Evidence against Tulving’s Theory of Long Term Memory?
* Research shown that LTM includes more than semantic + episodic memories * Tulving’s explanation is limited * E.g. HM + Clive Wearing both had brain damage, but they could still learn new skills - suggest there may be a 3rd type of LTM
103
What is the Evidence for Tulving’s Theory of Long Term Memory?
•Case studies of brain damaged patients support the model - KC damaged his episodic memory but his semantic memory was intact •Brain scans show different parts of brain are involved in episodic and semantic memory - E.g. semantic retrieval uses left hemisphere, but episodic retrieval uses right hemisphere - neuroimaging evidence supports that there’s 2 different types of LTM
104
What is Barlettes theory of Reconstructive Memory?
* Perception of something involves an active construction of what we think we see using what we already know * Previous knowledge is used to interpret info so it can be stored and recalled * Memory is rarely accurate
105
What is the Schema Theory?
Parcels of stored knowledge or mental representation of info about a specific even or object
106
What 4 things did Barlett dsy memory is prone to?
* Distortion * Transformation * Rationalisation * Simplification
107
What is Distortion?
Focus of the memory changes
108
What is Rationalisation?
Try to make sense of that memory
109
What is Transformation?
Replace parts of the story w/ something else
110
What is Simplification?
Shorten it/ simplify it
111
What are the Findings from Barlettes study using the War Of the Ghost?
* Story became shorter * People used phrases from modern life * Story had an order * People changed words to more familiar words * People left out the part about ghosts - they rationalised their presence
112
What did Barlett use the the War of the Ghosts in his study?
* It was culturally unfamiliar to Ps * It lacked rational order * The dramatic nature of the story would encourage visual imaging * The conclusion was supernatural + Barlett wanted to see how Ps would perceive this
113
What is the Evidence for Barlett’s Explanation of Reconstructive Memory?
Loftus + Palmer (1974) found memory eye witness testimony in a influences by leading questions - indicating that memory is reconstructive
114
What is the Weakness of the Methodology for Barlett’s Explanation of Reconstructive Memory?
* Lack validity * Experiments lacked control + standardisation * His findings were qualitative as he described the nature of recalled info in a descriptive way * Experiment are open to subjective interpretation * Loftus experiments were lab experiments so doesn’t reflect the way that memory works in everyday life * The story of the war of the ghosts is criticised for not being relevant to every day memory - lack validity
115
What is the Strength of the Methodology for Barlett’s Explanation of Reconstructive Memory?
Barlett’s research is more similar to real life, compared to tasks where you have to memorise trigrams which are artificial
116
What are the Strengths of the Applications for Barlett’s Explanation of Reconstructive Memory?
* Explain why eyewitness testimony can be unreliable * If people drawing on a schema to try + remember a crime - may add in or miss out vital info * It has implications for courts + justice team
117
What are the Weaknesses of the Applications for Barlett’s Explanation of Reconstructive Memory?
* Not all memories are inaccurate or affected by schemas * E.g. In Barlett’s war of the ghost study people remeber the line “something black came out of his mouth” because it is unusual * So, people may not always actively reconstruct memories
118
How does Barlet’s theory of Reconstructive Memory relate to Reductionism?
Doesn’t explain how Schemas are acquired
119
How does Barlet’s theory of Reconstructive Memory relate to Psychology as a Science?
* His experiments had lack of control + standardised procedures * His experiments can be criticised for lacking scientific rigour + being open to scientific interpretation
120
How does Barlet’s theory of Reconstructive Memory relate to Individual Differences?
* How we perceive an object/event in a based on individual interpretation * Influenced by our past experiences, knowledge + beliefs * Perception is an individual characteristic that is unique to every person
121
How does Barlet’s theory of Reconstructive Memory relate to Issues of Social Control?
Lawyers might use leading questions in order to reconstruct memories
122
How does Barlet’s theory of Reconstructive Memory relate to Nature vs Nurture?
* Schemas are mental constructs that form the structural/hardware components of the human memory system * However, the way in which schemas actually represent knowledge will vary between individuals + cultures * Schemas represent stereotypical beliefs about an object/event - affected by upbringing - product of nurture
123
What is the Aim for Part 1 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
Investigate the development of the phonological loop in children between 5 and 17 years old using digit span as a measure of phonological capacity
124
What is the Procedure for Part 1 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* 3 sequences of 3 digits - read out by experimenter at a rate of 1 sec - Ps listen + recall in order * An additional digit increased the length of sentence w/ each round * Example given to ensure they understand * Digit span taken as max length that Ps could recall atleast 2 out of 3 series w/ no errors
125
What is the Results for Part 1 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Digit span increased w/ age * Digit span rises steadily between ages of 5-11 years * Increase in digit span slows around 11 years * Digit span between 5-17 is fairly stable * Lower digit span w/ Spanish speaking children that for English speaking
126
What is the Conclusions for Part 1 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Digit span increases w/ age * Digit span in Spanish children is lower than English children - Spanish words are longer so takes longer to perform the rehearsal + fewer words can be held
127
What is the Aim for Part 2 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
Compare the results from part 1 to results from a previous study which they had done in 2010 - which looked at older patients + patients w/ dementia who has all carried out the same digit span task as the Ps in the study
128
What is the Procedure for Part 2 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Digit span for older patients + patients w/ dementia was measured using the same procedure as for part 1 * Data compared w/ part 1
129
What is the Results for Part 2 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Elderly group had higher digit span than 5 + 6 year olds * Digit span of elderly group wasn’t significantly different than the others * Patients w/ Alzheimer’s disease was higher than the 5 year olds buy didn’t differ significantly from other year groups * Patients w/ fronto temporal dementia had a digit span that was similar to the youngest groups (5 + 6 year olds)
130
What is the Conclusions for Part 2 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
Phonological loop is affected by age in general, not dementia
131
What is the Sample for Part 1 of Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* 570 volunteers * From public + private preschools, primary + secondary schools in Madrid * None has hearing impairments, reading/writing difficulties or any cognitive difficulties
132
What is the Generalisability for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* +ve - Male + females, large sample of 570 Ps * -ve - Ps from Madrid so might be cultural differences + Spanish words are long so can’t store as much - not generalisable to people above 18 and below elders
133
What is the Reliability for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
High in reliability: •Standardised tasks used - sequences read out by experimenter •Decreased risk of extraneous varios les as sample didn’t include Ps w/ hearing impairments + reading/writing difficulties
134
What is the Applicability for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Helps us understand why spanish digit span might be lower * Important for understanding children’s development in terms of whether they have a disorder or whether the language is affecting their development * Helps us understand how the phonological loop works + what affects it
135
What is the Strength of Validity for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
High in validity of measurement - using digits is a clear way of measuring digit span
136
What is the Weakness of Validity for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Low in mundane realism - tasks were unrealistic | * Low in ecological validity - lab experiments so setting is artificial
137
What are the Ethics for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
Very ethical: •Informed consent as Ps volunteered •Tasks couldn’t physically or psychologically harm the Ps in any way •But, Ps under 18 need parental consent
138
What is Digit Span in Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
How many digits you can obtain, hold and recall in your memory
139
What are the Individual Differences for Sebastian + Hernandez Gils Study?
* Many individual differences that detected by digit span testing * Dyslexia, which is a problem w/ learning to recognise words at the level appropriate for age - associated w/ a poor digit span (Helland + Asbjornsen, 2004)
140
Compare the Research Method for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- lab experiments w/ standardised procedures (same word list, same timings, etc) - design is independent measures (1 word list) * S+H- lab experiments w/ standardised procedures (order of tasks, timings, etc) - design is independent measures (1 age)
141
Compare the Sample for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- 17 men + woman from applied psychology unit subject panel at Cambridge * S+H- 570 volunteers from schools in Madrid between ages of 5 and 17, also older people + people w/ dementia
142
Compare the Ethics for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- No ethical concerns, task not distressing * S+H- no ethical concerns as informed consent was given as Ps volunteer, task not distressing - but, Ps need parental consent as they’re under 18
143
Compare the Generalisability for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- high as men + women - low as only 72 Ps, Cambridge (1 area, 1 country), subject research panel (certain type of personality) * S+H- high as big samplE of men + women - low as Ps from Madrid so might be cultural differences, no middle aged Ps as only 5-17 years + elders
144
Compare the Application for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- findings are that we encode semantically in LTM + acoustically in STM - means we can use this to suggest the best learning strategies to improve memory * S+H- Helps us understand why Spanish digit span might be lower - important for understanding children’s development in terms of whether they have a disorder or whether the language is affecting development, also now we understand how the phonological loop works + what affects it
145
Compare the Validity for the classic study of Baddeley and contemporary study of Sebastian + Hernandez-Gil:
* B- low ecological validity as artificial task (word list) so lack mundane realism - high validity of measurement as simplifying info mean we isolate the aspect of memory we’re concerned w/ + measure it correctly * S+H- low ecological validity as artificial tasks (number list) so lack mundane realism - high validity of measurement as used digits is a clear way of measuring digit span
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What are the 3 areas of memory where we can expect to see individual differences between people?
* Processing speed * Schemas * Episodic memory
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What is Processing Speed for Individual Differences in Memory?
* Speed at which we can process info differs between individuals * E.g. some people take longer than others to take notes down, due to the speed at which they can process the info + their short term store capacity
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What is Schemas for Individual Differences in Memory?
* Barlett suggests people have similar info in different schemas * E.g. when we think of an office, we think of a desk, chair, computer, books * But, these can be influenced by experience + there will be differences in how people remember objects
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What is Episodic Memory in Individual Differences in Memory?
Episodic memories are individual to the person as it is a collection of memories of their own life
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What is the study by Daniela Palombo which supports Episodic Memory in Individual Differences in Memory?
* Investigated individual differences in naturalistic autobiographical memory * They subdivided autobiographical memory into 4 domains: episodic memory, semantic memory, spatial memory, prospective memory * 598 volunteers a survey of autobiographical memory - did a 5 point likert scale
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What did Daniela Palombo find in the study which supports Episodic Memory in Individual Differences in Memory?
* Men scores higher on spatial memory * People w/ depression scored low on episodic + semantic memory * People who scored high/low on episodic memory also scored high/low on semantic memory - overall either have good/bad memory
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What are the Findings from Loftus et al (1992)?
* College students were more accurate in general * Males were more subject to misinformation than females * Occupation affected how influenced by misinformation people were - artists mainly * The more education someone had, the more accurate their accounts * The youngest + oldest subjects were the most inaccurate + subject to misinformation * Accuracy on event info gets better up to the 26-35 age range + then begins to fall
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What are the 2 developmental issues which are relevant to memory?
* Dyslexia | * Alzheimer’s disease
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What is Dyslexia?
* People w/ it struggle to learn how to recognise + decode printed words - can’t read as accurately/fluently * But, they understand the same amount as someone else * They have poor verbal STM - shown in studies using phonological similarity effect + word length effect
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What is the 1st Sign of Dyslexia?
When a child finds it difficult to learn letter sounds + names - leads to spelling + reading difficulties
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What were the Findings from McDougall (1994) for supporting Dyslexia?
•Poor readers: Lower memory spans for words + slow reading rate + sound out words more slowly which leads to fewer words being held in STM •Good readers: Articulate words quickly which leads to a greater number of words being represented phonologically in STM
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What were the Findings from Alloway (2009) for supporting Dyslexia?
* STM deficits that could be the cause of their reading problems * There’s an underlying cognitive impairment in dyslexia - leads to shorter memory span + difficulty processing + storing info in STM * But, not sure what role verbal memory plays in causing dyslexia - conditions like ADHD make it hard to isolate phonological issues leading to reading difficulties
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What is Alzheimer’s Disease?
* Progressive, degenerative, neurological disorder * Characterised by memory loss, concentration loss, confusion, changes in mood * Inability for recall autobiographical info from episodic memory - shows that it affects STM + LTM recall * Loss of executive functioning - lead to lack of coordination/attention * Memory loss associated w/ depletion of brain matter - particularly hippocampus + temporal lobe
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How does Alzheimer’s Disease Impair Certain Cognitive Systems?
* Alzheimer’s deteriorates memory for new events/info | * Affects working memory, central executive functioning + visuospatial processing
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What were the Findings from Baddeley (2001) for Alzheimer’s Disease?
* Participants w/ Alzheimer’s performed worse on the difficult version + were more impaired on the dual task * Suggests - tasks where attention is needed on more than 1 thing are specifically impaired by the disease

Psychology (14 decks)

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