SOCIAL Flashcards
(296 cards)
1
Q
Describe 2 key assumptions of the social approach:
A
- Other people can affect our behaviour, thoughts, emotions
* Social situation can affect our behaviour, thoughts, emotions
2
Q
Define Social Influence:
A
Behaviour, attitudes, emotions are affected by someone else
3
Q
Define Obedience:
A
Obeying direct orders from someone in authority
4
Q
Define Compliance:
A
Going along with what someone says, while not really agreeing with it
5
Q
Define Dissenting:
A
Where orders are rejected, person doesn’t do what they’re told
6
Q
Define Internalising:
A
You obey with agreement
7
Q
Define Conformity:
A
You adopt behaviours + attitudes to those around you
8
Q
Define Confederate:
A
Someone who helps someone else do something
9
Q
Define Autonomy:
A
Acting on one’s own free will
10
Q
Define Agency:
A
One acts as an agent for others
11
Q
Define Moral strain:
A
Experiencing anxiety, because you are asked to do something that goes against your moral judgment
12
Q
Define Socialisation:
A
Learning the norms of society through socialising agents (e.g. teachers)
13
Q
Name the sampling technique which Milgram used:
A
Oppertunity sampling
14
Q
Describe 1 weakness of the sample in Milgrams study:
A
Not generalisable - only males + no females
15
Q
Who was the confederate in Milgrams study?
A
The learner (Acting as a participant)
16
Q
What were the participants told the aim of Milgrams study was?
A
Aimed to see how punishment affected learning
17
Q
What was the actual aim of Milgrams research?
A
See if volunteer participants would be similarly obedient to inhumane orders
18
Q
Where did the Milgrams research take place?
A
Interaction Laboratory at Yale University
19
Q
How did the participants think the roles of teacher and learner were allocated in Milgrams study?
A
- Randomly
* Drawing of roles
20
Q
How were the roles of teacher and learner actually allocated in Milgrams study?
A
Drawing of roles was rigged so the participant was always the teacher
21
Q
What was the maximum voltage on the shock machine in Milgrams Study?
A
450 Volts
22
Q
At what voltage did the learner protest and stop responding in Milgrams study?
A
300 Volts
23
Q
What were the 4 Prods in Milgrams study?
A
1 - ‘please continue’
2 - ‘the experiment requires that you continue’
3 - ‘absolutely essential that you continue’
4 - ‘you have no other choice, you must go on’
24
Q
What were the purpose of the prods in Milgrams study?
A
See how obedient the participant was even though he knew something was wrong with the learner
25
What was the debriefing process that the Participants received in Milgrams study?
Friendly reconciliation with interviewer
26
What did Milgram find from the pilot study?
Participants predicted most Americans would stop before 150V shock level + no more than 4% would continue to 450V
27
What was the Quantitative data found in Milgrams study?
* 100% obeyed to 300 Volts
* 14 Participants stopped before 450 Volts
* 65% continued to obey to max 450 Volts
28
What was the Qualitative data found in Milgrams study?
Some participants remained calm but some indicted stress by stating :
•“ I think he’s trying to communicate, he’s knocking”
•“ it’s not fair to shock the guy”
•“ I don’t think this is very humane”
•”I can’t go on with this”
29
What was the sample shock that the Teacher received in Milgrams study?
45 Volts
30
What was the Procedure of Milgrams Study from after the sample shock was given ?
* Placed in separate rooms - teacher could only hear learner
* Teacher read series of word pairs, learner indicates which of 4 terms were correct
* If learner got answer wrong, teacher give them electric shock, every error increases bu 15 volts
31
What was the Conclusion of Milgrams study?
Social influence is strong and people obey orders even when this causes them distress
32
What were the features leading to Obedience from Milgrams study?
* Yale uni is prestigious uni + unlikely to allow unethical situation
* Study has worthy cause
* Victim wasn’t unwilling
* Participant had volunteered
* Participant was payed
* Learner there by chance
* Thought shocks were painful, but not dangerous
33
What was the reliability of Milgrams study?
Can’t be replicated because of ethical reasoning, so low reliability
34
What was the Application of Milgrams study?
* Relevant to Ww2 with concentration camp and Hitler
| * Relevant to strong facists
35
What was the Validity of Milgrams study?
* Measures what is says it would
* But, setting artificial as it is at Yale uni in a lab - which is not natural - validity low in this sense
* Lacks mundane realism - not representative of their real behaviour
36
Evaluate the Ethics in Milgrams study:
Ethical problems - deception - participants believed they were shocking a real person and unaware the learner was a confederate
37
What was Milgrams Variation 7 of the Experiment?
Telephonic instructions
38
What was Milgrams Variation 10 of the Experiment?
Rundown office block
39
What was Milgrams Variation 13 of the Experiment?
Ordinary man gives orders
40
What was the Aim of Milgrams Variation 7 experiment?
See if proximity of experimenter affects obedience levels
41
What was the Aim of Milgrams Variation 10 experiment?
See if setting of research affects obedience levels
42
What was the Aim of Milgrams Variation 13 experiment?
See if status of experimenter affects obedience levels
43
What was the Procedure of Milgrams Variation 7 experiment?
Same as original except:
| •Initially give face-face instructions, then experimenter left room and gave further instructions over the phone
44
What was the Procedure of Milgrams Variation 10 experiment?
Same as original except:
•Study took place in rundown office building
•Ps told that it was conducted by Bridgeport Associates, instead of Yale
45
What was the Procedure of Milgrams Variation 13 experiment?
Same as original except:
•Self selected sample of 20 men
•Drew lots with 2 other Ps
•1st confederate = learner, 2nd confederate = recording times from experimenter at desk
•Experimenter leaves
•2nd confederate (ordinary man) suggest increasing shock level for every wrong answer
46
What was the Results of Milgrams Variation 7 experiment?
22.5% gave max voltage
47
What was the Results of Milgrams Variation 10 experiment?
47.5% gave max voltage
48
What was the Results of Milgrams Variation 13 experiment?
20% gave max voltage
49
What was the Conclusion of Milgrams Variation 7 experiment?
Level of obedience dropped from original experiment, so proximity is important in creating obedience
50
What was the Conclusion of Milgrams Variation 10 experiment?
Level of obedience dropped slightly from original experiment, so setting has some effect on obedience
51
What was the Conclusion of Milgrams Variation 13 experiment?
Level of obedience dropped significantly from original experiment, so authority of experimenter is important factor in creating obedience
52
What is the Autonomous State?
* Guided by own moral code
* Take control for their own actions
* Freely choose own behaviour
* Person believes they have power
53
What is the Agentic State?
* Act against own moral code
* Person allows someone else to direct their behaviour
* Assume other person is responsible for consequences of their behaviour
54
How does Milgram explain the existence of the Agentic State?
* Evolution - survival strategy - following leader can increase chances of survival
* Learned in childhood from school + reinforced in adulthood from legal system
55
Give 2 sources of Moral Strain for participants in Milgrams study?
* Heard cries of victim
| * May have feared retaliation from victim
56
Describe 2 ways that participants in Milgrams study could reduce their moral strain?
* Dissent - choose not to obey
| * Displace responsibility on to an authority figure - Agentic state
57
Give 2 strengths for the Evaluation of Milgrams Agency Theory of Obedience:
* Supports concept of moral strain (Milgrams study) - Ps showed evidence of distress when told to harm an innocent person
* Standardised Procedures - can replicate because set order of events
58
Give 2 weaknesses for the Evaluation of Milgrams Agency Theory of Obedience:
* Theory lacks direct evidence - agency is mental process so can’t be directly observed
* Lacked mundane realism - shocking someone is not a thing you would expect to do in everyday life
59
To what extent is Agency theory generalisable?
* Cross - culturally
| * Methods Milgram used in studies lacked mundane realism - doesn’t generalise to life outside the lab
60
What are the Ethical Implications of Agency Theory?
Remove personal responsibility from those who commit follow immoral orders - offering excuses to people who follow orders
61
Describe an aspect of Obedience which the Agency Theory cannot explain:
* Motivational issues
| * Individual differences - why some people obey and some don’t - ignore factors (e.g. personality type)
62
Explain why Agency theory lacks evidence?
* Agency cannot be directly observed as it’s an internal mental process
* Milgrams theory about evolutionary development of agency cannot be directly tested
63
Describe aspects of Milgrams research that supports Agency theory?
* Evidence for concept of displacement of responsibility - in debriefing some Ps reported their behaviour was responsibility of experimenter
* Supports concept of moral strain - Ps showed distress when given orders to harm an innocent person
64
Define a Target in Social Impact Theory:
Person being impacted on
65
Define a Source in Social Impact Theory:
Person doing the influencing
66
What 3 Factors Influence Likelihood a person will respond to Social Influence?
* Strength - determined by age, authority, status
* Immediacy - distance between source and target
* Number - how many sources + targets there are in one group
67
What is Multiplication of Impact?
Social influence becomes stronger
68
What is Division of Impact?
* Social influence becomes weaker
| * Certain factors reduce impact of social influence
69
What is Social Impact Theory?
How likely we are influenced by others
70
What is Evidence for Social Impact Theory?
Supported by research :
•Asch, Milgram, Latane provide evidence for impact of strength, immediacy, number on observable human responses in social situations
•Milgram - 2 peers rebelled against authority figure asking them to give electric shocks to a learner - presence of dissenting peer lowered obedience to 10% - demonstrates divisional effect of 1 source on many targets
71
What is Evidence against Social Impact Theory?
* Ignores individual differences - doesn’t explain why some of us are more resistant to social impact
* Doesn’t explain why people are influenced by others
72
What is Locus of Control?
Extent people feel they are in control of their own situation and lives
73
What is External Locus?
Believe their behaviour is largely beyond their control
74
What is Internal Locus?
Believe they are responsible for their own actions
75
What are the 3 aspects of personality which may affect obedience?
* Locus of Control
* Authoritarian
* Empathy
76
Why are people with External Locus more inclined to be Obedient?
They can blame others for their actions
77
What Research was relevant for Locus of Control?
Milgram research - people stated they obeyed because experimenter had final responsibility
78
What is an Authoritarian Personality?
Submissive to authority, harsh to those seen as subordinate
79
What Research was relevant for Authoritarianism?
* Theodor Adorno constructed questionnaire - ‘F Scale’ - to measure authoritarianism
* Milgram + Elms - compared ‘F Scale’ - found obedient Ps had a higher F Scale score = authoritarian
* Dambrun + Vatine - conducted stimulation of Milgrams experiment using computers - found high authoritarian scores = Ps more likely to be obedient
80
What is meant by Empathy?
Ability to understand + share feelings of another
81
What Research was relevant for Empathy?
Burger (2009) - investigated and found it didn’t translate into lower levels of obedience
82
Explain why Developmental Psychology would suggest that woman might be more likely to be obedient:
* They are stereotypically more likely to comply with Male authority
* They are likely to be quiet and compliant
83
Describe a piece of evidence that suggests that Woman are Similar to Men in Obedience Levels:
Blass (1999) - obedience between males and females was consistent across 9 of 10 obedience studies
84
Describe a piece of evidence that suggests that Woman are Different to Men in Obedience Levels:
Kilham + Mann (1974) - replicated Milgrams study - found woman were far less obedient (16%) than men (40%)
85
Describe what is meant by the nature/nurture debate:
Extent to which behaviour is determined by inherited genetic factors (nature) or by interactions with environment + experiences + influences over cause of our lives (nurture)
86
Describe the idea that Obedience is Influenced by Nurture:
Developmental Psychologists - children growing up in individualistic culture where independence is valued are less likely to be obedient than children growing up in a collectivist culture where people work as groups and are less independent
87
What is the Aim of Burgers Study - Baseline Condition?
Replicate Milgrams Variation 5
88
What is the Procedure of Burgers Study - Baseline Condition?
* Explained study same way as Milgram
* Teacher read list of 25 word pairs - learner get 1 wrong then get shock
* Confederate said he had a heart problem
* Same prods used as Milgram
* If teacher resistant to continue, then experiment ended
89
What was the Sample for Burger’s Study?
* 29 males
* 41 females
* So, 70 participants
90
How much did Burger Pay the Participants for Taking part?
$50
91
What was the Sample Shock to the Teacher in Burgers Study?
15 Volts
92
How many Participants stopped at 150 Volts or Earlier for Burgers Study - Baseline Condition?
* 6 males (33.3%)
* 6 females (31.6%)
* Total = 12 Ps (30%)
93
How many Participants Continued After 150 Volts for Burgers Study - Baseline Condition?
* 12 Males (66.7%)
* 16 Females (72.7%)
* Total = 28 Ps (70%)
94
What was the Conclusion for Burgers Study - Baseline Condition?
* Time + changes in society’s culture didn’t have an effect on obedience
* No significant gender differences
* Screening process may have ruled out participants in a war that affected the results
95
What was the Aim for Burgers Study - Modelled Refusal Condition?
See if people would be less likely to be obedient if there was social support for the idea of exiting the study sooner
96
What was the Procedure for Burgers Study - Modelled Refusal Condition?
Most identical to baseline condition, But:
•2 confederates instead of 1
•2nd Confederate = posed as Participant (another teacher)
•Teacher 1 took lead (confederate)
•75V - learner grunted - teacher 1 hesitated
•90V - teacher 1 refused to carry on
•Experimenter asked teacher 2 (real participant) to continue
97
How many Participants stopped at 150 Volts or Earlier for Burgers Study - Modelled Refusal Condition?
* 5 Males (45.5%)
* 6 Females (31.6%)
* Total = 11 Ps (36.7%)
98
How many Participants Continued After 150 Volts for Burgers Study - Modelled Refusal Condition?
* 6 Males (54.5%)
* 13 Females (68.4%)
* Total = 19 Ps (63.3%)
99
What was the Conclusion for Burgers Study - Modelled Refusal Condition?
* Time + changes in society’s culture didn’t have an effect on obedience
* Seeing refusal to obey modelled didn’t effect obedience
* No significant gender differences
* Lack of empathy didn’t explain obedience
100
Explain 2 reasons for Burgers choice of 150 Volts as part for stopping the study:
* Study becomes ethical
| * Felt it wouldn’t affect the findings, 150V was known as ‘point of no return’
101
Describe 2 features of the procedure of Burgers 2009 study which are the same as Milgrams 1963 research:
* Burger drew lots + draw was rigged
| * Verbal prods were the same
102
Give 2 differences in the procedure of Burgers 2009 study and Milgrams 1963 Study:
* Burger - teacher got sample shock of 15V, Milgram - teacher got sample shock of 45V
* Burger - couldn’t go further than 150V, Milgram - could go to 450V
103
State 2 Positive factors for the Generalisability in Burgers study :
* Range of ages (20-81 years old)
| * Men + woman used
104
State 2 Limitations for the Generalisability in Burgers study :
* Volunteer sample limits sample to certain personality
| * Ethnocentric sample (American)
105
Evaluate the Reliability in Burgers study :
* Use of lab experiment - easy to replicate
* Good controls of variables (same gender experimenter as participant)
* Standardised procedures so easy to replicate
106
Evaluate the Application in Burgers Study:
* Apply understanding of obedience to public services on controlling people (e.g. police)
* Shows how obedience levels haven’t changed overtime
107
State 4 Positive factors for the Validity in Burgers study :
* High in internal validity - Ps believe experiment
* Extraneous variables controlled using standardised procedures
* Screening methods exclude psychology students
* Prods = direct orders = clear on task
108
State 2 Limitations for the Validity in Burgers study :
* Artificial setting = low in ecological validity
| * Lacks mundane realise because giving a shock to a stranger is unlikely
109
State 4 Positive factors for the Ethics in Burgers study :
* Screenings remoce those who are vulnerable
* Stopped at 150Volts
* Protection of Ps monitored by clinical psychologists
* Right to withdraw twice in writing and one face to face
110
State a Limitation for the Ethics in Burgers Study:
Deception - aim of study + rigged drawing of lots
111
Summarise findings of Ancona + Pareyson (1968) for cross-cultural studies of obedience:
* Italy
* Replicated Milgrams studies using students
* Obedience rate = 80%
112
Summarise findings of Slater (2006) for cross-cultural studies of obedience:
* United Kingdom
* Virtual reality replication of Milgrams research
* Obedience rate = 73.9%
113
Summarise findings of Meuss and Raijjmakers (1986) for cross-cultural studies of obedience:
* The Netherlands
* People obey orders to psychologically abuse a job interviewer
* Obedience rate = 92%
114
Summarise findings of Schurz (1985) for cross-cultural studies of obedience:
* Austria
* Ps give bursts of ultrasound rather than electricity to learner
* Obedience rate = 80%
115
Summarise findings of Blass (1991) for cross-cultural studies of obedience:
* USA, Italy, Austria, South Africa, Holland, Canada, Scotland, Puerto Rico
* Reviewed studies that have been done
* Obedience rate = 60.94% in USA, 65.94% elsewhere
116
What are Open Questions?
* No fixed response
* Data is qualitative
* Ps express themselves freely in their own words
117
What are Closed Questions?
* Fixed response
| * Data is quantitative
118
What is a Strength of Open Questions?
* More informative answers - increase validity
* Qualitative data - rich + detailed
* Provides reason + insight to Ps answers
119
What is a Strength of Closed Questions?
Quantitative data:
•Easy to compare + analyse + repeat
•More reliable - objective
120
What is a Weakness of Open Questions?
* Difficult to analyse + replicate
| * Can be misinterpreted by Ps + researcher - subjective
121
What is a Weakness of Closed Questions?
* Doesn’t give valid reasoning behind answers
* Don’t tell us the extent
* Limits response - doesn’t provide an option for every response
122
What is a Likert Scale?
Ps show how much they agree/disagree w/ a statement
123
What is Objective data?
* Fact based
* Measurable + observable
* Reducing bias
124
What is Subjective Data?
Based on personal opinions, interpretations, points of view
125
What are Structured Interviews?
* Typically standardised
* Closed questions
* Produce quantitative data
* Predetermined questions in a ser order
126
What are Semi-Structured Interviews?
* Produce quantitative + qualitative data
| * Set questions but, interviewer has more chance to explore answers further
127
What are Unstructured Interviews?
* Questions not in a set format
* Informal + non-directive
* Open ended questions
* Wider exploration of original subject matter
* Produce qualitative data
128
What Type of Interview is Most Reliable and Why?
* Structured interviews
| * There are set questions - so it’s easier to replicate as there are standardised questions
129
What Type of Interview is Least Reliable and Why?
* Unstructured interviews
| * Questions not in a set format - so it’s harder to repeat/replicate as questions/format isn’t standardised
130
Why are Unstructured Interviews said to be High in Validity?
* They produce qualitative data - rich + detailed - high in validity
* Research reflects true complexities of human behaviour being investigated
131
What is the Aim of any Sampling Technique?
Select a representative sample of people from the target population, so that we can generalise from them to the target population
132
What is Random Sampling?
Every member of target population have an equal chance of being selected
133
What is Stratified Sampling?
Dividing the target population into important strata or sub-categories
134
What is Volunteer Sampling?
Participants consciously decide to become involved - they volunteer
135
What is Opportunity Sampling?
Researcher selecting participants that are available to them at the time
136
What is a Strength of Random Sampling?
Best chance of unbiased representative sample in a large sample - so you have no control
137
What is a Strength of Stratified Sampling?
* Sample will ve representative of that population
| * Credible conclusions can be drawn
138
What is a Strength of Volunteer Sampling?
* Very ethical
* Easy
* Convenient
139
What is a Strength of Opportunity Sampling?
* Quick
* Convenient
* Efficient
* Cheaper
140
What is a Weakness of Random Sampling?
Easy to end up with a biased sample by chance
141
What is a Weakness of Stratified Sampling?
Sampling bias - important sub categories are excluded - becomes less representative
142
What is a Weakness of Volunteer Sampling?
If advert used - it will become biased
143
What is a Weakness of Opportunity Sampling?
Unrepresentative sample as it’s biased - might choose participants who look more helpful, etc
144
How can Researcher Effects Affect Self Report?
* Can affect interpretation of data
* The sex,age,manner + personality of interviewer can affect how much the participant reveals
* Researcher might unwittingly communicate his expectations to participants- through body language/tone of voice
145
What is Standard Deviation?
Measure of how far scores vary from the mean average
146
What is a Frequency Table?
Shows the number of times a score is found
147
What is Nominal Data?
Data falls into separate categories
148
How is Thematic Analysis Achieved?
* Through reviewing + identifying codes in qualitative data
* Develop codes into themes
* Use codes time analyse the data gathered
* Themes used to summarise the data
149
Why is Thematic Analysis considered Unscientific?
Themes are dependant on the subjective opinion of researcher - prone to researcher bias
150
What are the 4 Principals in the BPS Code of Ethics?
* Respect
* Competence
* Responsibility
* Integriry
151
How can Risks be Managed?
* Transference of risk
* Mitigation
* Acceptance
152
What was the Practical Report Aim?
A questionnaire to investigate whether males or females are likely to be obedient
153
What is the Independent Variable of the Practical Report and how is it Measured?
* Gender
| * Measured as male/female (self reported, self categorised)
154
What is the Dependent Variable of the Practical Report and how is it Measured?
* Levels of reported obedience
| * Measured by scores on self report questions
155
What is the Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) for the Practical Report?
There will be a significant difference in obedience measured by self-report scores on a questionnaire, between males and females by self categorisation
156
What is the Null Hypothesis (Ho) for the Practical Report?
There will be no significant difference in obedience measured by self-report scores on a questionnaire, between males and females by self categorisation
157
What was the Sampling Technique used in the Practical Report?
Opportunity Sampling
158
What was a Strength of the Sampling Technique used in the Practical Report?
Quick + convenient
159
What was a Weakness of the Sampling Technique used in the Practical Report?
* Sample is not representative of target population
| * Biased sample - certain type of person that researcher approaches
160
What is the the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* Students at Reigate College
* 3 people
* Aged 16-18
* Psychology students
161
What is a Strength of the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* Quick + Convenient
* Sample in Reigate College - easy to conduct as didn’t go far
* People aged 16-18 - Ps + researcher have same age so they could feel comfortable
162
What is a Weakness of the Sample used in the Practical Report?
* Low in generalisability
* Only studied people in Reigate college aged 16-18
* Can’t generalise to older or younger people
163
How Ethical was the Practical Report?
Very ethical:
•Given aim of research so no deception
•Had informed consent + right to withdraw in writing
•But, moderate risk of confidentiality as you share their information with other students doing the study - but, name not revealed
164
What were the Open Questions for the Practical Report?
* Give an example of a time when you’ve obeyed orders even if you didn’t agree with the order
* Explain the reasons why you would/wouldn’t choose to obey your teacher if they told you to stop chewing gum
165
What were the Closed Questions for the Practical Report?
* Children should always obey their parents. Rate your agreement on the scale below (1=disagree - 10=agree)
* Do you regard yourself as an obedient person? Rate your obedience on a scale of 1-10 (1=not obedient - 10=obedient)
166
What is a Strength of your Questionnaire for the Practical Report?
* Produces rich + detailed data
* Open questions produce qualitative data - the validity increases
* I used an open question which stated ‘give an example of a time when you’ve obeyed orders even if you didn’t agree with the order’
167
What is a Weakness of your Questionnaire for the Practical Report?
* Subjective to interpretation
* Open questions produce a lot of data which is hard to analyse - you could lose a info which could be useful
* Through thematic analysis you lose a lot of data when you code your data and when you place the codes into themes
168
When was the Data for the Practical Report Collected?
Tuesday
169
Where was the Data for the Practical Report Collected?
Reigate college
170
What was the Type of Data for the Practical Report Collected?
* Qualitative
| * Quantitative
171
What were the Controls for Extraneous Variables for the Practical Report ?
* Standardised instructions
| * Standardised questions
172
What are 2 Strengths of How the Data was Collected in the Practical Report?
* Standardised questions used - easy to replicate = high reliability - ‘if a teacher tells you to stop chewing gum. Yes or No’
* Ethical - aim clearly given so no deception + write to withdrawal - in questionnaire it states in writing ‘ you don’t have to complete this questionnaire if you do not wish to’
173
What are 2 Weaknesses of How the Data was Collected in the Practical Report?
* There are extraneous variables - there wasn’t standardised procedures + environment - it was noisy in the refectory which could affect the answers
* Sample was biased - due to location + sampling method which lowers validity - it was at Reigate college so answers might not differ as everyone 16-18 years old
174
What was the Title of the Bar Graph for the a Practical Report?
Bar graph showing obedience rating between males + females
175
What were the Results from the Bar Graph for the Practical Report?
Females are more obedient than males as the mean for females is 6.8 and for men it was 5.1
176
What were the Results from the Standard Deviation for the Practical Report?
* The standard deviation on if children should obey their parents for men was 1.19
* The standard deviation for women was 3.43
* This quantitative data tells us that women believe that children should obey their parents more
177
What are the 3 Main Themes of Thematic Analysis for the Practical Report?
* Consequences
* Personal opinions
* Obedience ti authority figure
178
What were the Conclusions for Qualitative Data in Relation to your Results for your Practical Report?
Thematic analysis tells us that there is no difference in obedience between males + females as the themes were the same
179
What were the Conclusions for Quantitative Data in Relation to your Results for your Practical Report?
•Bar graph shows - females are more obedient than males •Standard deviation results show that the female answers weren’t consistent + more spread out than males - so men obedience levels were more consistent
180
What were the Conclusions in Relation to Behaviour in General for Population as a Whole for your Practical Report?
In terms of population there isn’t a significant difference between obedience levels of males and females
181
How does the Conclusion of the Practical Report fit in with the Original Concepts and Research Findings?
This counteracts the stereotypical view that women are typically more obedient as they seem to be taking care of their child and following orders in the past
182
Which Hypothesis do you Accept for the Practical Report and Why?
* Accept null hypothesis as results seem due to chance
| * So there’s no significant difference in obedience levels between males + females
183
What are 2 Strengths of the Practical Report Study?
* Ethical - no ethical implications so nothing in the study could physically/psychologically affect anyone - no deception as you tell the participants the aim and there is right to withdraw in writing
* Reliability is high - easy to replicate as there are set questions as it was a structured questionnaire w/ standardised questions
184
What are 2 Weaknesses of the Practical Report Study?
* Validity is low - participants knew the aim - might be demand characteristics so they answer the questionnaire based on how they think the researcher wants you to respond
* Generalisability is low - data collected by Reigate college students aged 16 to 18 so you can’t generalise to target population
185
How can you Improve the Practical Report study by Making it More Generalisable?
* Expand sample to Ps in Reigate + not just Reigate College
| * Go to Reigate High Street and give out questionnaires to a range of ages from men and women
186
How can you Improve the Practical Report study by Making it More Valid?
* Make aim less clear + do more questionnaires so you can compare answers
* Add in filler questions to make the aim less known
187
What Further Research could be based on your Practical Report Study?
* Look into how your childhood could affect obedience
* Further research into if gender affect obedience
* Research into if age affects obedience
188
What did Past Research of Milgram + Burger Show for the Background of the Practical Report?
There was not a significant difference in obedience levels between males + females
189
What Study Supports the Conflict Theory?
Sherif et al
190
What Study Supports the Social Identity Theory?
Tajfel et al
191
What is Prejudice?
Prejudge somebody before knowing anything about them as an individual - extreme attitude
192
What are the 3 negative Components to Prejudice?
* Cognitive - stereotyping
* Affective - prejudice
* Behavioural - discrimination
193
What is Stereotyping?
Over generalised belief about someone or something usually based on limited information
194
What is Discrimination?
Unfair treatment of categories of people
195
Why is Prejudice a Problem for Society?
•Being stereotypes can affect someone’s actions and thoughts •Person being stereotyped might start to behave accordingly
196
What is Intergroup Conflict?
Real conflict experienced between different groups
197
What is Superordinate Goals?
Goals that can only be achieved by cooperation of all group members together
198
What does Realistic Conflict Theory Suggest?
* Prejudice is the result of conflict between groups
| * Conflict arises due to competition between groups
199
What does Sherif suggest about Realistic Conflict Theory?
When 2 different social groups compete for the resource - members become prejudiced against and hostile towards each other
200
According to Realistic Conflict Theory, How do Reduce Hostility Towards Groups?
Groups work towards shared goals -superordinate goals - to reduce hostility
201
What did Ember + Ember (1992) discover that Supports the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Tribal societies intergroup hostility increases when competition for natural + social resources increases
* This is cross-cultural evidence
202
What did Aronson (1978) discover that Supports the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* The removal of competition in a classroom + working towards a shared goal could reduce conflict
* Using the jigsaw technique
203
How does Reductionism relate to Sherifs Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Believed prejudice is explained by range of interconnecting social processes - argued for a multidisciplinary approach - psychologist should strive for both lab and field research
* Sheriff resisted attempts to explain prejudice at a dispositional level - such as personality theories - as it is too reductionist
204
What is Evidence from a piece of Research which Supports Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Sherifs Robbers Cave Study
| * Hostility between groups increased when groups were in conflict w/ each other
205
What are the Applications for the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Suggest that prejudice and hostility between groups can be reduced if they have superordinate goals
* E.g. Aronson found the jigsaw technique of working towards shared goals in the classroom reduce competition and hostility
206
What is a Strength of the Methodology for the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Main evidence = Robbers Cave Study
* High in ecological validity - field study + going to a summer camp was a normal thing to do
* High in mundane realism - tasks + competitions were realistic - e.g. tug of war
207
What is a Strength of Evidence that Supports the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* Has credibility
* Sherif’s Robbers Cave study shows how competition increased hostility + reduced hostility by superordinate goals
* Cross cultural relevance - Ember + Ember - tribal societies intergroup hostility increases when there’s competition for limited resources
208
What is a Weakness of Evidence that Supports the Realistic Conflict Theory?
* In Sherifs Robbers Cave study - suggests boy may have become hostile towards other groups before any competition
* The theory ignores individual differences - doesn’t explain why some boys in Sherif’s study displayed more prejudice than others
* So, Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory may be better explanation if prejudice
209
What is the Classic Study for Social psychology?
Sherif et al (1954/1961) - The Robber’s Cave Experiment
210
What was the Aim of the Robber’s Cave Experiment?
Investigate intergroup relations, effect of competition, how to resolve conflict between groups and group formation
211
What was the Procedure for Stage 1 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* First 5-6 days
* 2 groups separate + carry out tasks together to bond + develop group norms
* Group name - Eagles vs Rattlers - strengthen group identity
* Observation - sociometric measures + experimental judgement - investigate status positions + roles within the group
212
What was the Procedure for Stage 2 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Next 4-6 days
* Experimenter told groups about each other - expressed hostility
* Experimenter encourages conflict between groups - set up competitions to get prizes
* See if negative attitudes develop
* Recorded adjectives + phrases to see if they were derogatory
213
What was the Procedure for Stage 3 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Final 6-7 days
* Reduce tensión between groups + bring about conflict resolution through superordinate goals
* Groups work together to remove blockage
* Joint camp over - work together for food + sleep equipment
* Together drew a truck ‘stuck in the mud’
* Measured derogatory terms + used observation +rating of stereotyping
214
What was the Results for Stage 1 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Bonded within groups
* Developed group norms
* Expressed dislike of other group when they found out about them
215
What was the Results for Stage 2 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Preferred own group
| * Competition led to hostility - refusal time eat together, insults, flag burning
216
What was the Results for Stage 3 of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Time spent together - e.g. watching a film didn’t reduce hostility
* Joint problem solving tasks worked - e.g. freeing stuck truck
217
What were the Competitive Activities the Boys has to do?
* Baseball games
* Tug of war
* Tent pitching
* Treasure hunt
218
What were the Data Collection Methods of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Observation
* Sociometric analysis
* Experiment
* Tape recordings
219
What is Sociometric Data?
Shows patterns of like + dislike between participants - gives quantitative data
220
What was the Sample of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* 22 boys
* All aged 11
* White
* American
* Lower-middle class
* Protestant
* Above average IQ
* Same ability of education + sports
221
Where did Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif Take Place?
National Park in Oklahoma, USA
222
What was the Conclusion of the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Strong in-group identities formed initially + w/ the intro of competition negative out-group bias quickly emerged
* Contact between 2 groups isn’t enough on its own to reduce hostility
* Competition increases prejudice + discrimination
* Some prejudice + discrimination arises without competition
223
How was the Data Collection Method of Observation used in the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
Participant observer - trained not to influence the boys - studied each group for 12 hours a day
224
How was the Data Collection Method of Sociometric Analysis used in the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Issues analysed - e.g. friendship patterns
| * Boys filled out a self-report questionnaire on their attitudes to their own group and the other group
225
Give an Example of How the Data Collection Method of Experiment was used in the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Boys collected beans + estimated how many beans their own group collected
* This was compared to their estimate of how many beans the other group had collected
226
How was the Data Collection Method of Tape Recordings used in the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
Adjectives and phrases used to refer to in-group vs out-group members were examined
227
Why was there Low Generalisability for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
Sample was biased:
•All Ps from similar socio-economic backgrounds,same age,same ethnicity,same religion
•Sample -22 boys, aged 11, American, white, Protestant
•Small sample - lowers generalisability •Conducted in 1950s/60s - might not be relevant to now
228
Why was there Low Reliability for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Difficult to replicate + obtain similar results
* Field experiment
* So, many extraneous variables can’t be controlled - e.g. interactions between staff members + the boys
229
Why was there High Reliability for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
•He introduced some controls :
Ethnicity, religion, socio-economic status + age
•So, reduced participant variables which may have become confounding variables
230
What were the Applications for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Helps us understand how prejudice develops
| * Helps us understand how prejudice may be resolved - e.g. superordinate goals
231
Why was there High Validity for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
* Participants didn’t know they were being studied - reduces demand characteristics
* Several data collections used - e.g. observations showed derogatory behaviour + recordings showed derogatory remarks against the out-group
* Findings were accurate
* High in ecological validity - summer camp was a normal thing to do
* High in mundane realism -football + tug of war are realistic games to play
232
Why was there Low Validity for the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif?
Low internal validity:
•There were no control groups •Difficult to control extraneous variables + apply standardised procedures
•So, cause + effect can’t be demonstrated
233
Why was the Robbers Cave Experiment by Sherif Unethical?
* Boys not formally given the right to withdraw
* Protection - parents couldn’t boys to check on welfare + may have found the experience stressful + upsetting
* No informed consent - boys didn’t give consent, the parents did
* Deception - bous unaware of the aim + fact that they’re being studied
234
What were the 2 ways that Conflict was Created between the 2 groups of boys in the Robbers Cabe Experiment by Sherif?
•By competitive activities:
Tug of war, basketball games
•By introducing a desirable prize to compete for - e.g. penknives + gaining points to win the camp tournament
235
What did Tyerman + Spencer (1983) Find which goes against what Sherif found in the Robbers Cave Experiment?
Hostility didn’t emerge between groups + competition didn’t inevitably lead to hostility
236
What does the Social Identity Theory look to that Explains Prejudice?
Group membership
237
What does Tajfel + Turner (1979) suggest about the Social Identity Theory?
Being in a group is enough to cause conflict with other groups - they don’t need direct competition w/ each other
238
What is an in-group in the Social Identity Theory?
Any group which a person has membership
239
What is an out-group in the Social Identity Theory?
Any group to which a person doesn’t have membership
240
What is Personal Identity in the Social Identity Theory?
Our own unique qualities, personality + self-esteem
241
What is Social Identity in the Social Identity Theory?
The attributes of the group which we belong - see yourself formed through a group
242
What is in-group Favouritism in the Social Identity Theory?
Seeing our own group + members in a positive light and as unique
243
What is Negative Out-Group Bias in the Social Identity Theory?
Seeing members of a different group as all the same and in a negative light
244
What is Heterogeneous in the Social Identity Theory?
All different - in group heterogeneity is a term given to this bias
245
What is Homogenous in the Social Identity Theory?
Equal or similar - our group homogeneity is a term given to this bias
246
What is the Main Difference between Realistic Conflict Theory + Social Identify Theory?
* RCT - suggests intergroup conflict + resulting prejudice/discrimination is due to competition between groups
* SIT - suggests competition isn’t a necessary condition for conflict, + presence of another group is enough for conflict between groups
247
What are the 3 Variables that Contribute to In-Group Favouritism?
* Extent to which the individuals identify w/ the in-group
* Extent to which there are grounds for making comparisons w/ the out-group
* Relevance of the comparison group in relation to the in-group
248
What are the 3 Processes which Social Identity Theory Suggest are Involved in Becoming Prejudiced?
* Social categorisation
* Social identification
* Social comparison
249
What is Social Categorisation in the Social Identity Theory?
* Categorise ourselves + others as part of particular social groups
* E.g. gender, race, age, etc
250
What is Social Indentification in the Social Identity Theory?
People take on norms + values of their groups they’ve categorised themselves as
251
What is Social Comparison in the Social Identity Theory?
* Self esteem becomes bound up w/ group membership
| * Involves in-group favouritism + negative out-group bias
252
What does Minimal Group Theory Suggest?
Dividing people into groups is sufficient to cause prejudice to occur between them
253
What was the Sample for the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
64 British school boys
254
What was the the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Boys asked to allocate points (money) to boys in their own groups or another group
* Do this using a matrix
255
What was Found for the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Boys allocated more points to people in their own group - evidence for in group favouritism
* Also, boys would maximise the difference between the groups - so out group got much less points than the in group - provide evidence for discrimination against out-group
256
What is a Positive Practical Application of Social Identity Theory?
Deutsch + Collins (1951)
257
Explain the study of Deutsch + Collins (1951) Which is a Positive Practical Application of Social Identity Theory?
* Studied a desegregated housing project in New York - blacks+whites shared same housing project
* Compared this housing project with some segregated housing projects - white+blacks were housed in separate areas
258
Explain what Deutsch + Collins (1951) Predicted about their Study Which is a Positive Practical Application of Social Identity Theory?
Desegregation would reduce negative out-group bias and intergroup conflict between the blacks and whites
259
Explain what Deutsch + Collins (1951) Found about their Study Which is a Positive Practical Application of Social Identity Theory?
* Desegregated blocks - houswives mixed regularly - when doing washing +meeting in the street -held each other in higher regard + more in favour of inter-racial housing
* Segregated housewives - more likely to hold stereotypical views of blacks being dangerous and inferior
260
In Tajfels Minimal Group Experiment for Research into Social Identity Theory , Who were the Group Members?
* Randomly created
* No contact between group members
* Membership of groups is anonymised
* The tokens used as a form of currency to allocate rewards
* Punishments have no intrinsic value
261
Why did Tajfel conduct Minimal Group Experiments for Research into Social Identity Theory?
•Test whether being a member of a group was enough to create prejudice against another group •He wanted to see if prejudice could arise without competition
262
How is Low Mundane Realism a Weaknesses of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Study is artificial
| * Study only reflects the norms found in some societies •Cooperative societies may not show the minimal groups affect
263
How is Low Generlisability a Weaknesses of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Used 64 school boys from Bristol
* Small sample + study only from 1 place
* So, can’t be applied to other populations
264
How is High in Internal Validity a Strength of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
Well controlled lab experiment
265
How is Low Ecological Validity a Weaknesses of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Artificial tasks used
| * As, not normal to ask schoolboys to allocate points towards themselves and others
266
How is High in Reliability a Strength of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Standardise procedures
| * Can be repeated and replicated and produce consistent results
267
What are the Real World Applications of the Study by Tajfel (1971) which Supports the Minimal Group Theory?
* Shows how segregation leads to ingroup favouritism+outgroup prejudice and discrimination
* E.g. Deutsch + Collins (1954):
* Found desegregated blocks - housewives mixed regularly + held each other in higher regard + in favour of inter-racial housing •Segregated housewives more likely to hold stereotypical views of blacks being dangerous + inferior
268
What was Lemyre + Smith (1985) Study + what did he Find which Supports Social Identity Theory?
* Replicated Tajfels findings •Found discriminating group participants had higher self-esteem after the study
* High in reliability as can be replicated
269
How does Lemyre + Smith (1985) study Support Social Identity Theory?
Supports the notion that personal identity is linked to social identity
270
What did Cialdini (1976) Find which Supports Social Identity Theory?
•Individuals personal identity is affected by the association with the football team - social identity •Uni students more likely to wear football team top after winning - they refer to the time as ‘us’ when they won and ‘they’ when they lost
271
What did Jane Elliott (1980) Show which Supports Social Identity Theory?
Social categorisation with students divided into blue eyes and brown eyed groups could lead to prejudice and discrimination
272
What is a Weakness of the Methodology for the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel?
* Conducted in a lab experiments •There were demand characteristics
* Low in mundane realism - e.g. task of allocating money to in group and out groups using a matrix was artificial - so, results don’t apply to every day life
273
What is a Strength of the Methodology for the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel?
* Tajfels study was well conducted
* IV - matrices
* DV - how money was allocated to which groups
* So, cause + effect can be inferred
274
What are the Applications for the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel?
* Explain issues as diverse as conflict between football teams + religions, etc
* Used to reduce prejudice in society which comes from people identifying with an in-group +discriminating against an out-group
275
How does Weatherells Findings show that the Social Identity Theory may Not apply Cross Culturally?
* New Zealand Polynesians more likely to favour the outgroup then show bias to their own ingroup •Cultures who emphasise collectivism + cooperation - less likely to show great prejudice
* So, the theory may not generalise to other cultures
276
How does the Social Identity Theory Not explain Individual Differences in Prejudice?
* Why do some people discriminate more against our groups and others?
* E.g. Postmes (2005) - argues its individual characteristics that create a social identity, not a social identity that determines individual characteristics
277
Why is Social Identity Theory Criticised for Lack of Completeness?
* Focuses only on groups + doesn’t take any other factors into account when trying to explain prejudice
* Doesn’t try to measure how great the prejudice is or if other situations affect the level of it
278
How would Social Identity Theory suggest Prejudice can be Reduced?
* Encouraging people to see themselves as a larger social identity can combat out-group discrimination
* E.g. get people to see themselves as one community
279
What was Jane Elliots - Blue eyes/Brown eyes Study that Supports the Social Identity Theory?
* Students in 2 groups based on if you had blue or brown eyes
* Teacher says people w/ blue eyes are superior - so start acting calling people w/ brown eyes names like ‘brown eyes’ which was seen as a bad thing
* Next day - roles switch - people w/ brown eyes seem more superior and start acting like they’re in charge
280
What did Cohrs (2012) Suggest that explains Prejudice by looking at Individual Factors?
Personality dimension of openness to experience + agreeableness is negatively associated with prejudice
281
What did Adorno (1950) Suggest about Personality that Affects Prejudice?
* Having an authoritarian personality explains why some people are prejudiced
* As, they are hostile to those who they see as inferior to them - particularly minority groups or out groups
* Also, they tend to be obedient to authority
282
How does Adorno’s (1950) Suggestions about Personality that Affects Prejudice Link ti Developmental Psychology?
* Authoritarianism develops during childhood due to harsh parenting - when they’re strict •Negative feelings which the child feels towards them are displaced onto weaker members of society
* They maintain authority
283
What is Conservatism?
A belief in tradition + social order w/ a dislike to change
284
What is Anti-Democratic?
Views that oppose the fair election of government + majority rule
285
What is Ethnocentrism?
Belief that ones own ethnic group is superior to another
286
What is an Example of How does Culture Affect Prejudice?
British culture tended to be prejudiced against homosexuality in the 1950s however this type of prejudice is much less common today
287
How does Culture Affect Prejudice?
If the cultural has social norms that legitimise prejudice
288
What did Ember + Ember (1992) find that shows How Cultures affect Prejudice?
In tribal societies intergroup hostility increases when the competition for resources increase
289
What did Guimond (2013) find that shows How Cultures affect Prejudice?
* Prejudice is lower in countries that had pro diversity policy + countries that favoured multiculturalism compared to countries that favoured assimilation
* Lowest level of prejudice in Canada
* Highest level of prejudice in Germany
290
What was the Study by Katz + Brady (1933) that show how Cultures affect Prejudice?
* A questionnaire to students attending Princeton Uni
* Given a list of different ethnic groups
* Pick 5-6 traits from a list of 84 personality traits e.g. lazy that they thought represented each ethnic group
291
What is the Problem with using a Questionnaire in Katz + Brady (1933) study that show how Cultures affect Prejudice?
Participants may give socially desirable answers and answers aren’t valid
292
What did Katz + Brady (1933) Find that show how Cultures affect Prejudice?
American students classified American Africans as superstitious + ignorant and Jews as shrewd
293
What was the Aim of Katz + Brady (1933) study that show how Cultures affect Prejudice?
To investigate and national stereotypes of Americans about cultures
294
What did Karlins (1969) Find that shows how Cultures affect Prejudice?
Found that whilst some national stereotypes have changed, others persisted
295
What did the Findings of Karlins (1969) Suggest that shows how Cultures affect Prejudice?
Culture doesn’t affect prejudiced but as cultures change so does the prejudices they hold
296
What is the Theory of Individual Differences in Prejudice in relation to Culture?
* Realistic conflict theory - cultures have situations where people compete for resources
* Social identity theory - all cultures have in groups + out groups
