Cognitive approach

Question 1

What are the 4 models of memory?

Answer 1

1. Working memory model
2. Multi-store model
3. Schema theory
4. Flashbulb memory

Question 2

What is the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?

SAQ only

Answer 2

MSM was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in the 60’s and it proposed that memory consists of 3 different stores. Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Everything we pay attention to is passed through the sensory memory and into the short-term memory. The memory is there untill something new replaces it, or we rehearse it and it moves into the long-term memory. When we are remembering something it is moved back into the short-term memory so it can be used, this is called retrieval. This model is simple and linear and has been improved upon.

Studies
HM & Glanzer and Cunitz

Question 3

What is the working memory model (WMM)?

SAQ only

Answer 3

WMM was proposed by Baddley and Hitch in 1974. It proposes that short-term memory is not one single store, but instead 3 different ones. One for visual information, one that integrates info from the other components and one for auditorial information. The WMM argues that as long as we use different short-term memory stores there should be no problems with multitasking.

Studies
KF & Landry and Bartling

Question 4

What is the schema theory?

Answer 4

Schema theory is a cognitive theory of how humans process incoming information using already exsisting knowledge. Schemas are mental representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They are used to organize our knowledge, to assist recall, to guide our behavior, and to help us to make sense of current experiences. Schemas are energy-saving devices, meaning that we use schemas and save mental energy since they help us understand and predict the world we live in, but schema processing may also lead to errors in processing information (for example, distortions of memory).

Studies
Bransford and Johnson, Brewer and Treyens & Bartlett

Question 5

What is flashbulb memory?

Answer 5

Flashbulb memory was proposed by Brown & Kulik (1977). They defined flashbulb memory as a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened. They postulated the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience. This implies that flashbulb memories have different characteristics than “ordinary memories.” They also argued that these memories are resistant to forgetting.

Studies
Brown and Kulik, Neisser and Harsch & Kulkofsky

Question 6

What is the dual process model?

Answer 6

A model of thinking and decision-making according to which people use two types of thinking to process incoming information - system 1 and system 2. In system 1, the thinking process is fast, automatic and based on previous experience. System 2 thinking is slower, more deliberate and effortful, but also less prone to mistakes. We tend to use this system in unfamiliar situations when our system 1 thinking is not working. However, we prefer to use system 1 thinking as we want to save mental energy. System 1 thinking uses mental shortcuts called heuristics - such as anchoring bias - where we fail to think logically about a decision using System 2 thinking and base our decisions on information that is immediately available to us.

Studies
English and Mussweiler & Stroop

Question 7

What is anchoring bias?

Answer 7

A type of cognitive bias in thinking and decision making. Anchoring bias is when the first piece of information we receive influences our decisions. For example, when we hear that the original price of a good was 100 dollars but is now marked down to 80 dollars, we find that more attractive than walking into a store and seeing the same thing for 80 dollars. Seeing the 100 first makes us feel like we are getting a better deal. The value of a good is ambiguous – that is, we don’t know how much it should be, so this information helps us to form an opinion and make a decision.

Studies
English and Mussweiler, Tversky and Kahneman & Strack and Mussweiler

Question 8

Experiments

Cognitive processing

Answer 8

Studies
Bransford and Johnson, English and Mussweiler & Tversky and Kahneman

Question 9

Case studies

Cognitive processing

Answer 9

Neisser and Harsch

Question 10

Questionnaires

Cognitive processing

Answer 10

Studies
Brown and Kulik & Kulkofsky

Question 11

What is reconstructive memory?

Answer 11

People are active information processors. Memories are not exact copies, photos or recordings of events. Memories are reconstructed based on schemas, we fill in the blanks, so memories change over time. They seem to be a combination of things experienced, discussion with others, suggestions, post-event information and schemas. Everytime we enconde or access a memory it becomes fragile and suscepible to change, which leads to memories being reconsolidated

Studies
Loftus and Plamer, Loftus and Pickrell, Neisser and Harsch & Bartlett

Question 12

Experiments

Reliability in thinking and decision making

Answer 12

Studies
Loftus and Palmer & Loftus and Pickrell

Question 13

Case studies

Reliability in thinking and decision making

Answer 13

Neisser and Harsch

Question 14

Questionnaires

Reliability in thinking and decision making

Answer 14

Neisser and Harsch

Question 15

How does emotion influence cognitive processes?

Answer 15

Use FBM - Brown and Kulik
or Neisser and Harsch or Kulkofsky

Question 16

KF

Answer 16

Aim was to investigate if there are separate working memory stores for visual and verbal information. This study provides biological evidence for the WMM. KF was investigated using many different types of tests. Among other things, Warrington and Shallice presented him with words and numbers orally or visually. The results of the case study showed that KFs long-term memory after the accident was intact. He was able to learn new things. But he quickly forgot numbers and words when they were presented to him ORALLY but he was able to remember the words or numbers when presented to him VISUALLY. So, his impairment was mainly for verbal information and his memory for visual information was largely unaffected.

Question 17

Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 17

Aimed to investigate the effects of the anchoring bias on decision-making. High school students were asked to calculate within 5 seconds the product of the numbers one through eight either in ascending or descending order. The product is the same. Since they didn’t have time to finish the calculations, they had to make a fast and intuitive estimation based on the first calculations. The anchor was the first number in each condition (1 or 8). The results showed that those who had “1” as the anchor estimated a lower number than those who had “8” as the anchor.

Question 18

English and Mussweiler

Answer 18

Investigated if anchoring bias plays a role in determining a sentence in court. 19 young trial judges were given scenarios of a rape case with a recommendation for the length of the sentence either 2 months or 34 months by a prosecutor. It showed that those who were told that the recommended sentence was 34 months, recommended on average eight months longer in prison than those told that the sentence should be 2 months - for the same crime. This shows that even those who are knowledgeable within a field (average of 9 months of experience as judges) are susceptible to the anchoring bias even though some studies have shown that knowledge and expertise can sometimes reduce the effect.

Question 19

Loftus and Palmer

Answer 19

Aimed to investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect memory of accidents. Seven films of traffic accidents were shown to students and then they were asked to give an account of the accident and then they answered a questionnaire with one critical question asking them to estimate the speed of the cars: “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” The critical word “hit’” was replaced by ‘collided’, ‘bumped’ or ‘smashed’ or’ contacted’ in the other conditions. The results showed that using the word ‘smashed’ would result in higher estimation of speed than using the word ‘hit’. It may be that the way the question is formed results in a change in the participant’s mental representation of the accident, i.e. the verb “smashed” activates a cognitive schema of a severe accident that may change the participant’s memory of the accident.

Question 20

Loftus and Pickrell

Answer 20

The aim of the study was to determine if false memories of autobiographical events can be created through the power of suggestion. Before the study, a family member of the participant was contacted and asked about 3 childhood memories ofthe participant, and if the participant had gotten lost in a mall. The participants then got a questionnaire where thay were asked to write about 4 childhood memories, 3 real and then getting lost in the mall. They were asked about this information twice over 4 weeks. The results showed that 25% of the participants had recalled false memories.

Question 21

Neisser and Harsch

Answer 21

Aimed to determine whether flashbulb memories are susceptible to distortion. After the explosion of a US space shuttle was watched live on television, Neisser & Harsch asked participants a series of questions including: What time was it? How did you hear it? Where were you? And who was with you? They were also asked how much television coverage of the event they had watched. 2 ½ years later they were given the same questionnaire but also asked to rate how sure they were of their answers. The findings showed that although the participants were very confident of their memories, the mean score for correct answers to the questions was very low.

Question 22

Kulkofsky

Answer 22

Kulkoffsky investigated if there were differences in the level of flashbulb memories in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty and group memberships. The sample was made up of about 250 participants from five different cultures. First, the participants were asked to recall memories of big news events in their lifetime. They were then given a questionnaire that asked them questions about what they were doing on the day of that event. They were also asked how important the event was to them personally and how important it was to their country. The survey was conducted in their native languages. The results showed that Chinese participants had fewer flashbulb memories than Americans. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, there was no significant difference in the level of FBMs.

Question 23

Brown and Kulik

Answer 23

Investigated whether surprising and personally significant events can cause flashbulb memories by asking 40 black and 40 white American male participants to fill out a questionnaire regarding the death of public figures - such as President John F Kennedy and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr - as well as of someone they personally knew. They were asked a series of questions about the event including: Where were you when you heard about the event?, How did you find out about the event? and etc. They found that 90% of the participants recalled a significant amount of detail about the day when these events occurred, which means that most participants did have so called flashbulb memories of emotional and important events. Most participants had very detailed memories of details surrounding the death of a loved one and 75% of black participants had flashbulb memories of the murder of Martin Luther King, compared to 33% of white participants.

Question 24

Bransford and Johnson

Answer 24

Investigated whether activating schemas would influence memory of a paragraph. In this experiment, all participants listened to a passage about washing clothes. One condition was told the passage was about washing clothes before listening, one was told after listening and the control condition was not told anything. They found that participants in the title before condition remember more from the paragraph than other conditions. This shows how the activation of schemas before taking in information, leads to better comprehension and memory. The activated schema about washing clothes seems to be used to fill in the missing information since clothes sre never mentioned.

Question 25

Brewer and Treyens

Answer 25

A study that demonstrates how our schemas influence our memory. 30 participants waited in an office for 35 seconds. The room had both “schema congruent” items - that is, things that are normally in an office - and “schema incongruent items” - things that would not usually be seen in an office. In addition, there were some things that are typically in an office that were not there. THen they were asked to write down as many items as they could recall from the office. Participants remembered items that they expected to see, that is, those things that match their schema of an office. They also made errors where they added items that were not there, but which match an office schema – for example, bookshelves with books. Things which did not match their schema – for example, a piece of bark or a screwdriver – were not remembered.