Cognitive Approach Flashcards
(15 cards)
MSM Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
The MULTISTORE MEMORY MODEL, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), describes memory as a system with three separate stores: the SENSORY REGISTER, SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM), and LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM). Information flows sequentially through each store via the processes of ATTENTION, REHEARSAL, and ENCODING. STM is of limited duration and capacity, while LTM has theoretically unlimited capacity. The model is supported by evidence from case studies of brain-damaged patients showing that STM and LTM can function independently. However, it has been criticised for being too simplistic and not accounting for parallel processing or types of LTM (e.g., procedural vs semantic memory). THIS IS SUPPORTED BY HM (MILNER)
WMM Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
The WORKING MEMORY MODEL, developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), proposes that short-term memory is a multi-component system used for temporary storage and manipulation of information. It includes the CENTRAL EXECUTIVE (which directs attention), the PHONOLOGICAL LOOP (verbal and auditory info), the VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD (visual and spatial info), and later, the EPISODIC BUFFER (integration of info across modalities). This model explains how we can perform dual tasks (e.g., listening and reading) and accounts for complex cognitive activities such as problem-solving. It is supported by evidence from brain-damaged patients who show impairments in one component but not others, suggesting separate processing systems within working memory. THIS IS SUPPORTED BY SHALLICE AND WARRINGTON (KF)
Schema Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
Schemas are mental representations derived from prior experience and knowledge. Cognitive frameworks
They simplify reality, setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual contexts. We have a schema of a telephone, for example. Other uses:
Organise our knowledge
Assist recall
Guide behaviour
Help us make sense of current experiences
We use schemas as we are cognitive misers- want to think with as little effort as posisble
Scripts – schemas about events in time rather than a schema for objects. For example, what usually happens on Christmas day, or maybe going out for dinner
Piaget (1952) argued that there were two processes in creating schemas:
Assimilation – when you add information to your schema – e.g.i know how a shower works. If I go into a hotel and have a shower that works differently, I incorporate that into the schema.
Accommodation – changing/developing an existing schema when it cannot adequately explain a new object or event: e.g. as technology evolves and we have new ways of doing things, a computer will work in new ways. I replace my old schema with existing one.
Bartlett (1932) argued that schemas are used when memory is reconstructed e.g. recalling a memory. When people repeat an unfamiliar story, they change it to fit their existing knowledge and that it was this revised story they then remembered.
Schemas can be culturally specific but may vary even within a single culture because of such factors as class.
Bartlett (1932) argued that schemas are used when memory is reconstructed e.g. recalling a memory. When people repeat an unfamiliar story, they change it to fit their existing knowledge and that it was this revised story they then remembered.
THIS IS SUPPORTED BY ANDERSON AND PILCHERT
Thinking and Decision-Making (Dual Processing) Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
Cognitive processing has two systems which must work together to help us make decisions
System 1 (Intuitive thinking): quick, easy, intuitive – uses heuristics
Cognitive misers: humans find simplest method of cognitive to minimise cognitive load
Heuristics: mental shortcuts to reduce time and effort, derived from personal experiences
Prone to systematic errors, causing cognitive biases (eg. anchoring, framing)
System 2 (Rational thinking): slow, deliberate, rational – uses more cognitive effort
Information moves between systems based on whether efficiency or accuracy is more important.
THIS STUDY IS SUPPORTED BY LOFTUS AND PALMER AND LOFTUS AND PICKRELL
Reconstructive Memory Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY theory suggests that memory is not a perfect recording but rather a reconstruction influenced by schemas, leading questions, and post-event information. Memory retrieval involves active reconstruction, making it vulnerable to distortion. This explains false memories and eyewitness misidentification, as in the real-life case of Ronald Cotton, who was wrongfully convicted based on a false memory created through suggestive line-ups and confident eyewitness recall. Experimental studies have shown that small changes in wording can alter participants’ memories, demonstrating the unreliability of memory under social pressure or suggestion. THIS IS SUPPORTED BY LOFTUS AND PICKRELL AND LOFTUS AND PALMER
Biases in Thinking and Decision Making Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
BIAS in thinking and decision making occurs when heuristics or cognitive shortcuts lead to systematic errors in judgement. Common biases include the ANCHORING BIAS (over-relying on initial information), the AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC (judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind), and the FRAMING EFFECT (influence of how choices are presented). These biases are usually the product of System 1 processing and can significantly affect decisions in fields such as law, finance, and medicine. Biases often persist even when people are made aware of them, indicating they are deeply embedded cognitive patterns. THIS IS SUPPORTED BY TVERSKY AND KAHNEMANN
The Influence of Emotion on Cognition Theory? Including key words? What studies support this?
The INFLUENCE OF EMOTION ON COGNITION refers to how emotional arousal impacts key cognitive processes such as attention, memory encoding, and decision making. Emotionally charged events are often remembered more vividly and confidently, a phenomenon known as FLASHBULB MEMORY. This type of memory is believed to be more resistant to forgetting and unusually detailed, due to the activation of the amygdala and adrenal stress hormones, which modulate memory consolidation during emotional arousal.
The YERKES-DODSON LAW (1908), also known as the INVERTED-U THEORY, proposes that there is an optimal level of arousal for cognitive performance. At low arousal levels, attention and encoding may be too weak; at high levels, stress may impair processing. Optimal memory performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal, aligning with findings that emotion enhances memory only up to a certain point. Extremely intense emotional experiences may lead to distorted or fragmented recall, particularly under stress. Critics argue that flashbulb memories, while vivid and confidently recalled, are not always accurate, suggesting that emotion may enhance the perceived reliability of a memory rather than its factual correctness. This highlights the dual role of emotion: it can strengthen memory encoding but also increase susceptibility to distortion depending on arousal intensity and context. THIS IS SUPPORTED BY BROWN AND KULIK.
What is the APFC for HM Milner (1966), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate the effects of bilateral medial temporal lobe resection, including the hippocampus, on memory formation.
Procedure - HM suffered from anterograde amnesia following a lobotomy to alleviate epileptic seizures in 1953.
Longitudinal case study using method triangulation, including IQ tests, observations, interviews, cognitive tests, and MRI scans (later conducted by Corkin in 1997). Milner tested HM’s ability to acquire new procedural memories, such as mirror-drawing tasks.
Findings - HM had intact STM (could retain digits for ~20 seconds) but could not transfer new information to LTM.
He retained memories from before surgery, showing a functioning retrieval mechanism for LTM. He was able to learn new motor skills (e.g., mirror drawing) without recalling the training → suggests procedural memory is handled outside the hippocampus.
Conclusion - The hippocampus plays a critical role in the consolidation of declarative memories, but not in STM or procedural memory, supporting the Multistore Model and the localisation of memory function. THIS STUDY CAN BE USED FOR LOCALISATION, MEMORY MODELS AND THINKING AND DECISION MAKING.
What is the APFC for KF Shallice and Warrington (1970), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate the effects of brain damage on short-term memory, particularly regarding modality-specific storage.
Procedure - KF was a 28-year-old male who suffered brain damage to the left parietal-occipital region from a motorcycle accident.
His digit span was tested across auditory and visual inputs.
Compared performance on tasks involving verbal auditory material vs visual or tactile stimuli.
Findings - KF had a severely impaired auditory verbal STM (digit span of 1–2 digits) but visual memory and comprehension of written language were largely intact.
He could remember information presented visually far better than aurally.
This suggests separate components of STM, supporting the Working Memory Model—specifically, damage to the phonological loop, with the visuospatial sketchpad unaffected.
Conclusion - Memory is not unitary within STM. This supports the Working Memory Model and shows how brain damage can produce modality-specific impairments.
What is the APFC for Anderson and Pilchert (1978), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate how schemas influence both encoding and retrieval of memory.
Procedure - 39 psychology students were assigned the role of either a burglar or a homebuyer. They read a 2-minute story containing 72 details about a house.
After initial recall, half were asked to shift schema (e.g., burglar → homebuyer) and asked to recall again.
Findings - Participants recalled more schema-relevant information the second time if they shifted perspective.
On average, participants recalled 7% more details when switching schemas.
They also recalled information that was not retrieved in the first recall, showing the impact of retrieval cues on schema activation.
Conclusion - Schemas influence not just encoding, but also retrieval. Memory is reconstructive and dynamic, and can be altered based on contextual shifts in perspective.
What is the APFC for Tversky and Kahnemann (1974), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate the influence of anchoring heuristics on estimations and decision making.
Procedure - 307 participants were asked to estimate the product of either:
1×2×3×4×5×6×7×8 or
8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
Given 5 seconds to provide their best estimate. Anchors differed only in order, not values.
Findings - The ascending group gave a median estimate of 512, whereas the descending group gave a median estimate of 2,250. The actual value was 40,320. This massive difference shows how participants relied on the first few numbers (the anchor) to make their estimate.
Conclusion - People rely on heuristics—mental shortcuts—that can cause systematic errors in judgement, such as anchoring bias. This supports Dual Process Theory, where System 1 dominates in fast decision-making contexts.
What is the APFC for Loftus and Pickrell (1995), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate whether false memories could be implanted through suggestive techniques.
Procedure - 24 participants (aged 18–53) were asked to recall four events from their childhood, based on information provided by a close relative.
Three events were true, one was fabricated (“You got lost in a shopping mall at age 5”). Over two interviews, participants were asked to recall each event and rate confidence and clarity.
Findings - 25% of participants “remembered” the false event.
Participants described details, emotions, and sensory elements of the fabricated memory. Some later resisted believing the memory was false, even when told it was invented.
Conclusion - Memory is highly reconstructive and vulnerable to suggestion. This supports the idea that memory can be fabricated, especially when coming from a trusted source.
What is the APFC for Loftus and Palmer (1974), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate how leading questions affect the reconstruction of memory.
Procedure - 45 American students watched videos of 7 car accidents and were asked,
“How fast were the cars going when they ___ into each other?”
The verb was manipulated across 5 conditions: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted.
Findings - Mean speed estimates:
Smashed: 40.8 mph
Collided: 39.3 mph
Bumped: 38.1 mph
Hit: 34.0 mph
Contacted: 31.8 mph
In a follow-up, 1 week later, participants were more likely to say they saw broken glass in the “smashed” condition (32%) than the “hit” condition (14%), even though there was no glass.
Conclusion - Memory can be altered by post-event information, especially through leading questions, supporting reconstructive memory theory and challenging the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
What is the APFC for Brown & Kulik (1977), and what theories does it support?
Aim - To investigate the existence and reliability of flashbulb memories for shocking public events.
Procedure - 80 participants (40 white Americans, 40 Black Americans) answered questionnaires about their memories of public and personal emotional events.
Questions included where they were, who told them, how they felt, and how often they talked about it. Events included the assassination of JFK and Martin Luther King Jr.
Findings - 90% of participants had vivid flashbulb memories of the JFK assassination. Black participants were significantly more likely to recall MLK’s death vividly. Participants reported high levels of detail and emotional intensity.
Conclusion - Emotionally arousing events can trigger distinct, vivid, and long-lasting memories, known as flashbulb memories, which appear to be culturally and personally significant, although later research questions their accuracy.
What is the APFC for Englich and Mussweiler?
Aim - To investigate whether anchoring bias affects judicial sentencing decisions, showing how intuitive heuristics can override rational judgment.
Procedure - 19 young German law students were given a criminal case about theft.
They were told the prosecutor was recommending either a short sentence (2 months) or a long sentence (34 months) — this was the anchor.
Participants were asked if the sentence was too high or low, and then to suggest their own sentence.
The anchors were randomly assigned to different participants.
Findings - Those given the high anchor (34 months) recommended significantly longer sentences than those given the low anchor.
The anchor influenced decisions despite identical case details.
This shows participants were using a heuristic (anchoring) rather than rational analysis.
Conclusion - The study demonstrates how even trained law students are vulnerable to anchoring bias, highlighting how System 1 (intuitive) thinking can influence decision-making in place of System 2 (rational) processes — thus supporting the dual process model.
