Relationships Flashcards
(12 cards)
Biological approach to the Formation of Relationships?
The BIOLOGICAL APPROACH to relationship formation explains attraction through EVOLUTIONARY THEORY and SEXUAL SELECTION. Individuals are drawn to traits that indicate REPRODUCTIVE FITNESS, such as PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS, SYMMETRY, or signs of YOUTH and HEALTH. Attraction is influenced by HORMONES like TESTOSTERONE, OXYTOCIN, and DOPAMINE, which regulate bonding, pleasure, and sexual interest. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM leads to DIFFERENCES IN MATE PREFERENCES, with males and females prioritising different traits based on their REPRODUCTIVE INVESTMENT. Ultimately, biological attraction serves to MAXIMISE GENETIC SURVIVAL and REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS.
BUSS AND RONAY AND VON HIPPEL CAN BE USED HERE
Sociocultural approach to the Formation of Relationships?
The SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH suggests that CULTURE, SOCIAL NORMS, and CULTURAL DIMENSIONS shape relationship formation. In COLLECTIVIST CULTURES, values such as FAMILY DUTY, LONG-TERM COMMITMENT, and SOCIAL HARMONY influence relationship choices, often seen in ARRANGED MARRIAGES. In INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES, relationships are more often based on ROMANTIC LOVE, PERSONAL CHOICE, and PHYSICAL OR EMOTIONAL ATTRACTION. PROXIMITY, FAMILIARITY, and SOCIAL IDENTITY also affect attraction, as individuals tend to favour those from similar ETHNIC, CULTURAL, or SOCIAL GROUPS. Relationship formation is therefore not just individual, but also shaped by CULTURAL CONTEXTS AND EXPECTATIONS.
BUSS AND GUPTA AND SINGH CAN BE USED HERE
Cognitive approach to the Formation of Relationships (Attraction)?
The COGNITIVE APPROACH explains attraction as a result of SCHEMAS, PERCEPTUAL BIASES, and MENTAL SHORTCUTS. The HALO EFFECT is a cognitive bias where individuals assume that PHYSICALLY ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE also possess POSITIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS, such as intelligence or kindness. This can influence not only who we are attracted to, but also how we INTERACT with them. The MATCHING HYPOTHESIS proposes that people prefer partners of SIMILAR ATTRACTIVENESS, which reduces RISK OF REJECTION and enhances perceived EQUITY. Attraction is also influenced by SOCIALLY SHARED BELIEFS about what makes someone desirable, reinforcing COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY in romantic decision-making.
DION AND TAYLOR CAN BE USED HERE
The Role of Communication in the Formation of Relationships?
COMMUNICATION is essential in maintaining relationship SATISFACTION, TRUST, and EMOTIONAL CONNECTION. Effective communication involves POSITIVE INTERACTION STYLES, such as EMPATHY, VALIDATION, and ACTIVE LISTENING. Poor communication is often marked by NEGATIVE AFFECT, HOSTILITY, or BLAME, which can escalate conflict and erode closeness. The way partners ATTRIBUTE BEHAVIOUR in conflict is key — those in satisfying relationships make SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS for negative behaviour, while those in distressed relationships use DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS, blaming the partner’s character. SELF-DISCLOSURE, the process of revealing personal thoughts and feelings, deepens intimacy when it is MUTUAL, GRADUAL, and RESPONSIVE.
BRADBURY AND FINCHAM AND COLLINS AND MILLER CAN BE USED HERE
Why do Relationships Change/Break Down?
Relationships change or break down due to NEGATIVE COMMUNICATION PATTERNS, DECLINING SELF-DISCLOSURE, and UNMET EMOTIONAL NEEDS. GOTTMAN’S FOUR HORSEMEN — CRITICISM, CONTEMPT, DEFENSIVENESS, and STONEWALLING — are four toxic communication behaviours that predict relational breakdown. These interactions create a cycle of EMOTIONAL DISCONNECT and DESTRUCTIVE CONFLICT. According to SOCIAL PENETRATION THEORY, healthy relationships deepen through increasing INTIMACY and SELF-DISCLOSURE, but breakdown occurs when disclosure becomes SUPERFICIAL, ONE-SIDED, or REVERSES. Additionally, GENDER DIFFERENCES in communication can lead to misunderstandings — with women tending to use EMOTIONALLY EXPRESSIVE, RAPPORT-FOCUSED language, and men favouring INSTRUMENTAL, PROBLEM-SOLVING speech. These factors collectively explain how relationships may WEAKEN, STAGNATE, OR END over time.
BRADBURY AND FINCHAM AND COLLINS AND MILLER CAN BE USED HERE
APFC for Buss (1989)?
AIM - To investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences in mate preferences based on evolutionary theory.
PROCEDURE - Surveys were distributed to over 10,000 participants across 33 cultures, asking them to rate the importance of various traits in a potential mate (e.g., attractiveness, earning potential, chastity).
FINDINGS -
Females across cultures preferred financial prospects and ambition more than males.
Males preferred youth and physical attractiveness more than females.
Preferences were consistent with predictions of sexual selection theory, though some cultural variation existed (e.g., less emphasis on chastity in Scandinavian countries).
CONCLUSION - These findings support evolutionary explanations of attraction, suggesting that universal sex differences in mate preference are driven by reproductive pressures.
APFC for Ronay and Von Hippel (2010)?
AIM - To test whether the presence of an attractive female observer would lead men to engage in more risk-taking behaviour, explained by sexual selection theory.
PROCEDURE - 96 Australian male skateboarders (average age ~21) were observed attempting trick jumps. Half performed in front of a male experimenter, the other half in front of an attractive female. Risk-taking was measured by the number of failed attempts and physiological arousal via salivary testosterone and cortisol levels.
FINDINGS - Participants took more risks and had higher cortisol levels when performing in front of a female.
This behaviour was interpreted as costly signalling, where males display fitness by engaging in risky but skillful actions.
CONCLUSION - The presence of an attractive observer influences male risk behaviour, supporting biological theories of mate attraction and competitive signalling.
APFC for Gupta and Singh (1982)?
AIM - To examine differences in love and marital satisfaction between arranged marriages and love marriages in India.
PROCEDURE - Participants in either arranged or love marriages (50 couples (research doesnt specify the proportions) were surveyed at three intervals: newlyweds, after 5 years, and after 10 years. Measures included self-reported love and satisfaction scales (Rubin love scale).
FINDINGS -
In love marriages, feelings of love decreased over time.
In arranged marriages, love increased significantly over the 10-year period.
Arranged couples reported comparable or higher satisfaction after a decade.
CONCLUSION - These findings support the role of cultural values and social expectations in sustaining relationships, highlighting how relationship formation and maintenance differ across collectivist vs individualist cultures.
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APFC for Dion et al. (1972)?
AIM - To investigate the halo effect — the cognitive bias where attractiveness influences perception of unrelated traits.
PROCEDURE - Participants (60 undergraduate students (30 males and 30 females) from a U.S. university)
1. Participants were told that they were participating in a study regarding “accuracy in people perception” and being compared to graduate students who had been trained in that area.
2. They were each given three envelopes containing photos of people their age, one being considered physically attractive, the other moderately attractive, and the last one unattractive. The researchers used 12 different sets of photos.
3. Half of the participants were given photos of people of the same sex while the other half were given photos of the opposite sex. The set of photos, the gender received and the order in which they were to be opened were all randomly allocated.
4. The participants were asked to rate the person on 27 personality traits on a six-point scale.
5. After that, they were asked to complete a survey on who they thought was the most and least likely to experience marital happiness, parental happiness, and overall happiness.
6. Finally, they were asked to indicate who would be most likely to engage in 30 different occupations. The occupations were divided into “low status,” “average status” and “high status”.
FINDINGS -
Attractive individuals were rated as more kind, intelligent, and socially competent.
Participants believed attractive people would have better marriages, higher status jobs, and more fulfilling lives.
CONCLUSION - Physical attractiveness leads to positive trait assumptions unrelated to actual behaviour — supporting the cognitive bias of the halo effect in relationship formation.
APFC for Taylor et al. (2011)?
AIM - To explore the role of ethnicity and in-group preference in online dating choices.
PROCEDURE - 60 heterosexual males and 60 heterosexual females; profiles selected from site at random; these pps were identified as ‘initiators’ and records were also kept to identify ‘reciprocating’ contacts and ‘non-reciprocating’ contacts. The researchers analysed data from a large US dating website, tracking user behaviour including profile views and message sending patterns. Participants came from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Researchers collected a maximum of 6 photographs from each pp and contact; total of 966 photos (527 female); researcher-appointed judges rated photos on 7-point scale of attractiveness (-3 to +3); each photo rated by 14-43 judges; calculations based on mean attractiveness rating given to each initiator and each contact
FINDINGS - Users were more likely to view and contact people of the same ethnicity.
This in-group preference was strongest among White and African-American users.
Users claimed to be open to interracial dating, but actual behaviour revealed bias.
There was no significant evidence for matching hypothesis.
CONCLUSION - This demonstrates how social identity and implicit cultural preferences influence attraction, even in anonymous digital contexts.
APFC for Bradbury & Fincham (1990)?
AIM - To explore the role of attributional style in marital satisfaction and conflict resolution.
PROCEDURE - The researchers reviewed multiple longitudinal studies of 47 married couples, analysing how partners attributed positive and negative behaviours to either dispositional or situational causes. Participants were given a demographics questionnaire and a 6-item measure of marital satisfaction. In addition, they were assessed regarding the degree to which they experience a number of common marital problems. The sums for overall satisfaction was individually collected for each husband and wife. Participants were then asked to make attribution ratings regarding the topic which yielded the highest dissatisfaction in the marriage. Each married couple was then reunited and seated facing each other and instructed to ‘work to mutually agree on a solution’ for their respective issue for 15 mins. The discussions were recorded and later analysed regarding their problem-solving behaviour.
FINDINGS -
Happier couples made positive attributions, explaining negative behaviour as situational (e.g., “he’s tired”).
Unhappy couples made negative dispositional attributions, blaming personality (e.g., “he’s lazy”).
Attributional style predicted long-term satisfaction and stability.
CONCLUSION - Attributions in communication significantly impact relationship health, supporting theories of cognitive framing and emotional regulation in communication.
APFC for Collins and Miller (1994)?
AIM - To investigate the relationship between self-disclosure and liking in interpersonal relationships.
PROCEDURE: Conducted a meta-analysis of 50 studies examining whether people who self-disclose more are liked more, and whether people like those who disclose to them specifically. To be included in this review, a study had to meet each of the following general criteria:
a) The study had to contain either a manipulation or self-report measure of self-disclosure
b) The study had to contain a measure or manipulation of liking or attraction toward a target.
c) The study could not have used either a clinical population or a therapy analogue.
d) The report had to include sufficient statistical information so that an effect size could be estimated.
FINDINGS - People who disclosed more were generally rated more positively.
People tend to like those who disclose to them more than to others.
Individuals are more likely to disclose to those they already like, suggesting reciprocity and intimacy development.
CONCLUSION - Self-disclosure plays a key role in relationship formation and maintenance, supporting social penetration theory and models of intimacy development.
