Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Schema Theory

Answer 1

• a “mental model” or “mental framework”, containing everything you know about a particular object, person, situation or event
• Schemas are derived from our prior experience and knowledge

Question 2

Schemas Role in Memory

Answer 2

• help us to organize memories & help in recall
• help guide behavior
• help you predict what will happen next

Question 3

Schemas and Distorted Memory

Answer 3

• Information that is consistent with our schemas will be remembered well, but information which is inconsistent with our schemas may be forgotten or distorted to “fit” our schemas
• When you can’t remember an event well, you may “fill in” the missing details with your best guess, based on your schema for that event.

Question 4

Multi-store memory model

Answer 4

• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
  1. Sensory memory: All of your sensory experiences
  2. Short-term memory: If you do pay attention to something in your surroundings, this information will enter short-term memory
  3. Long-term memory: With enough rehearsal, information may eventually enter your long-term memory. Your long-term memory store can hold vast amounts of information for a potentially unlimited time

Question 5

Evaluation of Multi-store memory model

Answer 5

• the first model of memory to distinguish between short-term and long-term memory. It is historically important, and served as the foundation for later, more detailed theories
• supported by many research studies that demonstrate the limited capacity of short-term memory, the importance of rehearsal, and the difference between short-term and long-term memory.
• now considered too simplistic. It does not explain many important aspects of memory: for instance, how memories can become distorted, or why traumatic experiences can result in extremely vivid memories with no rehearsal

Question 6

Working Memory Model

Answer 6

• Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
• a more developed version of the multi-store model, updated to reflect the latest research on the workings of short-term memory
• Central executive: the “CEO” of the memory system, which directs the slave systems
• Phonological loop: the verbal component of short-term memory. The phonological store is your “inner ear”, and stores auditory information for a brief period of time
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad: the visual & spatial component of short-term memory. It is like an “inner eye” that can visualize a mental picture, from either your sensory memory or your long-term recollection.
• Episodic buffer: a sort of mental “TV screen” where all the information from your senses, short-term and long-term memory is projected, ready for you to make use of. The episodic buffer explains how we can integrate and make use of information from different memory stores

Question 7

Evaluation of Working Memory Model

Answer 7

• explains why it is possible to multi-task on some occasions, but not others. As long as the two tasks utilize different short-term memory systems, it is possible to perform well on both tasks. However, if the two tasks involve the same memory system, multi-tasking is nearly impossible
• How the different memory systems interact with each other is not entirely clear. Although the episodic buffer has been proposed as a bridge between the different memory systems, how the episodic buffer actually works is difficult to fully explain
  ​- The working model memory explains short-term memory well, but says very little about long-term memory, and does not explain how long-term memories may become lost, distorted, or fabricated

Question 8

Reconstructive Memory

Answer 8

we must consciously rebuild our memories every time we try to remember something. And when we try to rebuild our memories, we may be influenced by other factors - such as our beliefs or feelings about the past, or unrelated memories that get misplaced and mixed together.

Question 9

Memory Traces

Answer 9

brief fragments of memory, rather than an entire, complete record.

Question 10

Memory and Biased Questioning

Answer 10

• Since our memories aren’t perfect, we often fill in missing information with our “best guess”. And our “best guess” can be influenced by a multitude of factors, including the expectations and suggestions of people around us.
  Ex:
• Forced Choice questioning
• Leading questions

Question 11

Forced Choice Questioning

Answer 11

questions in which there are a fixed set of possible answers, and it is implied that one of those possible answers is the correct one.

Question 12

Flashbulb Memory

Answer 12

• memories of highly emotional events will be exceptionally clear, detailed, and accurate
  ​- These events will be remembered as vividly as a photograph, hence the term “flashbulb” memory
• People will remember all the details surrounding the event, such as the time and place of the event, who they were with, and so forth
  ​- Brown & Kulik suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism for flashbulb memories

Question 13

Evaluation of Flashbulb Memories

Answer 13

• Research has confirmed that emotion certainly affects memory. The more emotional an event, the more detailed and vividly it will be remembered
  ​-Research by Phelps has also demonstrated that the amygdala plays a role in flashbulb memories, confirming the hypothesis that a special brain mechanism is responsible for these memories
  ​-​However, an important modification to the original theory is required. Only personally relevant events, especially those witnessed first-hand, are likely to result in flashbulb memories.
  ​- Research by Neissar and Harsch has found that memories for shocking events are not always accurate, even when people are highly confident in their memories.

Question 14

System 1 Thinking

Answer 14

• is automatic, intuitive, and requires no effort
• prone to errors

Question 15

System 2 Thinking

Answer 15

deliberate and effortful, requiring mental work and concentration

Question 16

Evaluation of Dual Processing Theory

Answer 16

• The distinction between System 1 and System 2 thinking is well supported by research
• The theory can explain why intelligent people can sometimes make poor decisions whenever they rely on System 1 to come up with a fast, effortless (but sometimes wrong) answer
  ​- Dual process theory is also consistent with evolution. System 1 is believed to have evolved in the distant past to make quick, potentially life saving decisions, while System 2 is a more modern adaptation to help us think deliberately and carefully
• Not all researchers agree that there are two systems. Some alternate models of thinking have suggested that there are four (or more) different systems of thinking

Question 17

Heuristics

Answer 17

Mental Shortcuts prone to error
- in system 1 thinking
- lead to biases in thinking and decision makign

Question 18

Anchoring Effect

Answer 18

• A system 1 bias
• involves making use of a reference point, or anchor, in coming up with an estimate. If you have a particular number in mind, no matter where this number came from, it will influence any estimate you subsequently make.

Question 19

Availability Heuristics

Answer 19

• people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily an example or instance of the event comes to mind.
• explains why people are often particularly fearful of shocking and sensational events, such as terrorist attacks, plane crashes, serial killers, and so forth