Cognitive Approach Studies

Question 1

Aim of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 1

To investigate whether the use of leading questions (specifically different verbs) would affect participants’ estimation of the speed of vehicles in a car accident.

Question 2

Participant makeup of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 2

45 student participants, divided into 5 groups of 9.

Question 3

Films watched in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 3

7 short films of traffic accidents.

Question 4

Questionnaire content in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 4

A questionnaire including 1 critical question about the speed of the cars.

Question 5

Verbs used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 5

Smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted.

Question 6

Average speed estimate of the ‘smashed’ group

Answer 6

40.8 mph.

Question 7

Average speed of the ‘contacted’ group

Answer 7

31.8 mph.

Question 8

Conclusion of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 8

The wording of the question influenced memory recall, suggesting that memory is reconstructive.

Question 9

Aim of Brewer and Treyens

Answer 9

To investigate the role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.

Question 10

Participant makeup of Brewer and Treyens

Answer 10

86 university psychology students.

Question 11

Office items in Brewer and Treyens

Answer 11

Participants were told to wait in an office containing both schema-congruent items and schema-incongruent items.

Question 12

Example of a schema-congruent office item

Answer 12

Calendar.

Question 13

Example of a schema-incongruent item

Answer 13

Skull.

Question 14

Recall time in Brewer and Treyens

Answer 14

After 35 seconds, participants were moved to a room and asked to recall what they saw.

Question 15

Ways used to recall objects in Brewer and Treyens

Answer 15

Written recall, verbal recognition, drawing recall.

Question 16

Recall scores in Brewer and Treyens

Answer 16

Written recall and verbal recognition (30), Drawing recall (29), Verbal recognition (27).

Question 17

Schema-congruent items recall in Brewer and Treyens

Answer 17

Schema-congruent items were more frequently recalled across all conditions.

Question 18

Conclusion of Brewer and Treyens

Answer 18

Memory is influenced by schemas during both encoding and recall.

Question 19

Aim of Loftus and Palmer Broken Glass study

Answer 19

To investigate whether post-event information (the verb used in the speed estimate question) would influence participants’ memory of an event.

Question 20

Participant makeup of Loftus and Palmer BG

Answer 20

150 students, divided into 3 groups of 50.

Question 21

Speed question wording in Loftus and Palmer BG

Answer 21

Group 1 was asked about speed using the word ‘smashed’ and group two was asked about speed with the word ‘hit.’

Question 22

Time frame for asking about broken glass in Loftus and Palmer BG

Answer 22

Participants were asked 1 week later if they had seen broken glass (none was present in the film).

Question 23

Speed estimate and broken glass recall in Loftus and Palmer BG

Answer 23

The speed estimate of the smashed group was 10.46 mph, and 16 participants said they saw broken glass.

Question 24

Loftus and Palmer - speed estimate of the hit group

Answer 24

8.00 mph, 7 participants.

Question 25

Loftus and Palmer - conclusion

Answer 25

Leading questions not only influenced speed estimates but also altered memory of details (false memory of broken glass).

Question 26

Aim of Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 26

To investigate how positive and negative framing influences decision-making in a hypothetical life-or-death situation.

Question 27

Sample of Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 27

self-selected sample of 307 U.S. undergraduate students.

Question 28

Tversky and Kahneman - number of programs

Answer 28

2

Question 29

Tversky and Kahneman - assignment method

Answer 29

Randomly assigned, positive, negative, disease outbreak.

Question 30

Tversky and Kahneman - Program A

Answer 30

200 people will be saved.

Question 31

Tversky and Kahneman - Program B

Answer 31

⅓ chance 600 saved, ⅔ chance none saved.

Question 32

Tversky and Kahneman - Program C

Answer 32

400 people will die.

Question 33

Tversky and Kahneman - Program D

Answer 33

⅓ chance nobody dies, ⅔ chance 600 die.

Question 34

Tversky and Kahneman - Positive Frame choice percentage

Answer 34

72% chose the sure gain (Program A).

Question 35

Tversky and Kahneman - Negative Frame choice percentage

Answer 35

78% chose the risky option to avoid certain loss (Program D).

Question 36

Conclusion of Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 36

Framing significantly affects decision-making. People prefer certainty in gain (risk-averse) and risk in loss (risk-seeking). Demonstrates loss aversion and System 1 thinking.

Question 37

Aim of Tversky and Kahneman Number study

Answer 37

To investigate how anchoring (initial information) influences numerical estimation.

Question 38

Tversky and Kahneman - participant makeup

Answer 38

High School students.

Question 39

Tversky and Kahneman - group task

Answer 39

Each group was given a multiplication sequence in either ascending or descending order.

Question 40

Tversky and Kahneman - ascending group median estimate

Answer 40

512

Question 41

Tversky and Kahneman - descending group median estimate

Answer 41

2250

Question 42

Tversky and Kahneman - actual value

Answer 42

40320

Question 43

Tversky and Kahneman - conclusion

Answer 43

The initial number (anchor) influenced the final estimate. Participants relied on the first number in the sequence to guide their decision—demonstrating the anchoring bias and System 1 thinking.

Question 44

Aim of Brown and Kulik

Answer 44

To investigate whether surprising and personally significant events can cause flashbulb memories.

Question 45

Brown and Kulik - participant makeup

Answer 45

80 American male participants (40 black and 40 white).

Question 46

Brown and Kulik - questionnaire topics

Answer 46

participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire about their memories on MLK and John F. Kennedy as well as someone personally significant.

Question 47

Brown and Kulik - vivid memories percentage

Answer 47

75% of the participants had vivid memories of the assassination of JFK.

Question 48

Brown and Kulik - flashbulb memories percentage

Answer 48

75% of black participants had flashbulb memories of MLK, whereas only 33% of white participants did.

Question 49

Brown and Kulik - conclusion

Answer 49

suggests that emotionally significant and personally relevant events are more likely to be remembered in vivid detail, forming what are known as flashbulb memories.