Cognitive Final Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
Q
Analytic Introspection
A
Describing thought processes in response to stimuli
2
Q
John Watson
A
- Founded behaviorism
- Introspection: produced highly variable results. Results hard to verify because based on invisible mental processes
- Replaced the mind with observable behavior
3
Q
Behaviorism
A
- What is the relation between sitmuli and behavior
- Based on classical and operant conditioning
- Goal was to predict and control behavior
4
Q
Cognitive processes
A
Created by many specialized brain areas all working together
5
Q
Bottom-Up Processing
A
- Stimulus driven
- Lowest to highest level
- Gathers data from our surrounding
6
Q
Top-Down Processing
A
- Goal/knowledge driven
- Originates at the highest level
- Influenced by expectation and prior knowledge
7
Q
Experience-Dependent Plasticity
A
Brain is changed by exposure to environment so it can perceive more efficiantly
8
Q
Perception Involves (4)
A
- Inference
- Taking knowledge/experience into account
- Linked to action
- Perception is dynamic
9
Q
Attention
A
- Ability to focus on specific stimuli
- Selective, shiftable, and divisible
10
Q
Attention Central Assumption
A
- Attention is limited
- Cannot process all at once
- Bottleneck
11
Q
Perceptual Load
A
- High and low
- Task difficulty
12
Q
Attentional Capture
A
Involuntary shift of attention due to another stimulus
13
Q
Sensory Memory
A
- Some don’t believe in it
- Fraction of a second
14
Q
Short term memory duration
A
15-20 seconds
15
Q
Working Memory
A
- Limited capacity for temporary storage and manipulation of info for complex tasks
- Similar to short term memory
- 15-20 seconds
- About 4 items
16
Q
Short term memory capacity
A
7 +/- 2
5-9
17
Q
Interference
A
- Most common reason we forget from STM
- Can be from old or new stuff
Old can affect new
New can affect old
18
Q
Working Memory: The Multi-Component Model
A
- Phonological Loop
- Central Executive
- Visuospatial Sketch Pad
19
Q
Long Term Memory
A
- Storing info for long periods of time
- No limit
- Anything longer than WM
- Doesn’t always stay
20
Q
Serial Position Curve
A
- Remember first few items and last items
21
Q
Primacy Effect
A
- Beginning of list
- Time to rehearse and transfer to LTM
22
Q
Recency Effect
A
End of list
23
Q
Episodic Memory
A
- Memory for personal experiences
- Tied to a specific event
- Mental time traveling, Reliving
24
Q
Semantic Memory
A
- Memory for facts, vocab, concepts
- Not tied to a specific event
(George Washington)
25
Forgetting Curve
- Ebbinghaus
- Steep initial drop off
26
Forgetting
- Not an all or nothing process
- Degrees of forgetting
27
Recollection
- Remember specific details
- Associated with episodic memory
- Remember
28
Familiarity
- Know
- Seems familiar, but can’t remember details
- Associated with semantic memory
29
Explicit Memory
- Memories we are aware of
- Episodic and semantic memory
- We can state it
30
Implicit Memory
- Memory we aren’t aware of
- Procedural memory, priming, and conditioning
31
Procedural Memory
- Skill memory
- Implicit
32
Propaganda Effect
More likely to rate things as true because you’ve been exposed to them
33
Time: Implicit vs Explicit
Explicit
- Memories decay fairly steadily over time
Implicit
- Memories remain quite stable over long periods
34
Encoding
- Process used to get info into LTM
- Ways to encode
Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal
35
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating continuously
No meaning
Not effective
36
Elaborative Rehearsal
- Relate info to something meaningful
37
What influences the baility to retrieve
- How you encode
- Shallow and Deep processing
38
Good encoding
- Quality over quantity
39
Massed Practice
Cramming
40
Retrieval
To use encoded info, you have to retrieve it
41
Retrieval Cue
Words or other stimuli that help us remember info stored in memory
42
Retrieval Cues (5)
- Location
- Auditory
- Smell
- Memories
- Bodily State
43
Increase Encoding
- More cues you can reinstate at retrieval, the more likely you are to remember
- Match conditions at retrieval to the conditions present at encoding
44
How to increase retrieval
- Encoding specificity
- State-dependent learning
- Transfer-Appropriate processing
45
Encoding Specific
- We encode info along with its context
- Match the context (physical situation)
46
State Dependent Learning
- Learning is associated with a particular internal state
- Memory will be better when a person’s internal state during retrieval matches state during encoding
47
Transfer Appropriate Processing
- Better performance when type of processing matches at encoding and retrieval
- That is the way/method you used to learn
48
Constructed nature of memory
- Reported memories are based on what actually happened and additional factors such as person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations
- Mind constructs memory based on multiple sources of info
49
Source Monitoring
Process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs
50
Memories are made up of
- What happened and
Perceptual experience
Emotions
World Knowledge
Things that happened before/after event
51
Script
- Schema
- Sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience
52
Misinformation Effect
- Misleading information presented that is incorporated into the reconstruction of the memory
53
Reconsolidation Effect
Remembering causes reactivation of memory and once reactivated, becomes fragile and subject to change until reconsolidation
54
Repressed and Recovered Memories
- Mis-attribution of source
- usually false memories
- Source memory errors
55
Problematic therapy techniques
- Hypnosis
- Sodium amytal
- Suggestion
- Imagery-based techniques
56
Estimator Variables
- Outside the legal system
57
System Variables
- Under control of the justice system
58
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (8)
Linguistic
Logical-math
Musical
Spatial
Naturalist
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Bodily-kinesthetic
59
Sternberg’s 3 Intelligences
Analytic
- Well-defined problems with one answer
Creative
- Ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas
Practical
- For everyday tasks that are poorly defined and have multiple answers
60
Achievement Tests
Final Exam
61
Aptitude Tests
College entrance exams
62
Problem
- A mismatch between an initial state and a goal state
- Solving is a sequence of steps (intermediate steps)
63
Gestalt View of Problems
- How people represent a problem in their mind
- Way problem is presented may differ from way you represent it in your mind
- How solving a problem involves a reorganization of the problem
- Restructuring is associated with insight
64
Insight
- Sudden realization of a solution
- Often requires a mental shift or restructuring
65
Meta-Cognition Study (Metcalfe and Weibe)
- Is there a difference between insight and non-insight problem solving?
- If so, peolple should know when getting close to a solution for non-insight, but not for insight
- Ex. Word scrambles and riddles
66
Incubation
Set aside a problem and think about something else
67
Functional Fixedness
- Blocks the necessary insight
- Candle on bullentin board
Didn’t think about the box
Only see box as holding matches
- Focus on familiar functions/uses of an object
68
Fixation
- Tendency to focus on a specific aspect of a problem, keeping you from a solution
69
Two String Problem
- Couldn’t solve it
- Gave them a hint of strings swinging
- More were able to solve
- Example of how reconstructing can lead to insight
70
Mental Set
- Preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
- Determined by experience or what’s worked in the past
- Even if it is not the easiest solution
71
Means-ends Analysis
- Goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
- Achieved through sub-goals
72
Checkerboard Study
Results
- Subject with boards that emphasized difference between adjoining squares found problem easier
73
Random Search Strategies
- Trial and error sequence is maintained until answer is found
- Unsystematic
- Systematic
74
Unsystematic Random Search
- No logical order of attempts is used
- No record is kept of prior attempts
75
Systematic Random Search
More orderly and keep track
76
Inductive Reasoning
- Reasoning based on observations (current or past) or reaching conclusions from evidence
- Conclusions are probable, not definite
- Using past experience to guide saves time, uses less effort
77
Availability Heuristic
Events that are more easily remembered are judged as more probable
78
Illusory Correlations
When a correlation between two events appears to exist, but none in reality
79
Stereotype
- Oversimplified generalization about a group/class that is often negative
- Knowing about a stereotype may lead people to pay attention to that behavior
- Extra attention creates illusory correlation that reinforces stereotype
80
Representativeness Heuristic
The probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resemble the properties we usually associate with class B
81
Anchoring Bias
Causes us to rely heavily on the 1st piece of info we’re given about a topic
82
Confirmation Bias
- Situation in which info is favored that confirms a hypothesis
- Selectively remember/focus on parts that align with current feelings or experiences, while overlooking the parts that don’t fit
83
Present Bias
Person may selectively focus on parts that resonate with them even though some aspects don’t appy
84
Barnum Effect
People tend to believe that generic info/descriptions apply specifically to them, even if they could apply to almost anyone
85
Bias blind spot
More likely to detect bias in others vs self
86
Belief perseverance
Continue to hold onto established beliefs even with contradictory evidence
87
Expected Utility Theory
If people have all the relevant info, they’ll make a decision with max expected utility
88
Utility
Outcomes that achieve a person’s goals
Benefit
89
Decision Paralysis
Being unable ot make a decision due to being overwhelmed by too many options or info
90
Decision Fatigue
The more decisions made throughout the day, the harder each decision becomes
- Brain looks for shortcuts, leading to poor decision-making
91
Status Quo Bias
Tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision
92
Framing Effect
Decisions influenced by how choices are stated
93
Levels of analysis approach
- Relationship between mind and brain studied in different ways
Behavior
Whole brian
Brain structures
Chemicals in brain
94
Stroop effect
- Colors and words
- Takes longer to name a color of a word when the word is in a different color
95
Example of semantic vs episodic memory
Semantic
- Capital of a country
Episodic
- Details of a vacation trip
96
Prosopagnosia
- Perceptual disorder
- Can’t recognize faces
- Skin recognizes, but they don’t
97
Capgras
- Recognize faces
- Think they are imposters
98
What is long term memory for
- Understanding language
- Solving problems
- Making decisions
99
Alfred Binet’s intelligence test
- Mental age
- Goal to improve education and predict school achievement
100
Stanford-Binet test
- Adapted from original Binet test
- Believed intelligence tests revealed a mental capacity present from birth
101
Lewis Terman
- Adapted Binet’s intelligence test
- Tested California kids
- Stanford
102
IQ
- Mental age/ chronological age x100
- If mental age and chronological age are the same, score will be 100
103
Wechslet Adult Intellilgence Scale
- Most widely used intelligence test
- 15 subtests
104
Wechsler Scale for Children
- Scale for pre-schoolers
- Can use results to identify those who could benefit from extra help
