COGNITIVE Memory

Question 1

What are the three processes of Memory?

Answer 1

Encoding: information enters memory system- or slips away.
Storage: information is preserved for recollection in future- or is forgotten.
Retrieval: info recollected- sits ‘on tip of your tongue’.

Question 2

What happened to Clive Wearing’s Memory?

Answer 2

Herpes simplex encephalitis (1985), lost ability for new memories. Can’t form new memories or recall some aspect of held memories. Anterograde + retrograde amnesia. But still ability to play music (different stores of memories).

Question 3

What two categories can we categorise memory by?

Answer 3

Time and Context.

Question 4

Explain the Modal Model of Memory: Time (Atkinson + Shiffrin, 1964)

Answer 4

Specific storage for input form the sense. Iconic Memory- visual impressions. Brief duration 250-500ms.
Echoic Memory: auditory impressions. Few second duration. Other sensory storage of haptic (touch), taste and smell memory- less prominently researched.

Question 5

What is the capacity of sensory memory + how can it be examined?

Answer 5

Sperling Test for Sensory Memory. Brief Presentation (50ms) of letter arrays. Ppt asked to recall all letters in an array. On average recall only 4-5 letters. ‘X,M,R,J’.
Second section: asked to recall from specific row. Sperling performed this with tones to indicate which row to recall. high for top row- low tone for bottom row. Ppt reported large arrays of recall when tone represented. Sensory memory capacity= large. Only recall a select few items. Apply attention to sensory infromation to retain it- STM. Attention moves it sensory to STM.

Question 6

What do we know about short term memory, duration capacity and boosting>

Answer 6

Short duration (30s-60s).
Capacity 5-9 information elements.
Boosted by active rehearsal and chunking.
(Active rehearsal only works when can ascribe meaning).

Question 7

What do we know about long term memory

Answer 7

Info an be transferred STM-LTM. Info can be retrieved LTM-STM. Unlimited duration and capacity but still not perfect. Many different types of memories + knowledge held in LTM.

Question 8

Long- term Memory Systems: Content- Squire 1986, Tulving 1985.

Answer 8

Long term memory feeds into declarative and non-declarative.

Question 9

What is Declarative Memory?

Answer 9

Includes Episodic Memory + Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory: episodes of your life that you remember. Including contextual information such as when and where they occurred.
Semantic Memory: general facts about world you know, abstracted from contextual information.

Question 10

What is non-declarative memory?

Answer 10

Procedural memory: skills, habits. Other forms of implicit memory. (conditioning, priming).

Question 11

What is Working Memory?

Answer 11

Concept that combines memory processes (encoding, storage and retrieval) and memory systems (taxonomies categorising memories).

Question 12

What is Working Memory used for?

Answer 12

Used to manipulate information in STM. Active rehearsal and chunking. Current thoughts. Retrieving information form LTM. Transferring information to LTM. Maintaining information while being distracted- remembering phone numbers while search for a pen. Making information into LTM accessible for processing= computing 25-7=15. Combining information in novel ways learning birthday of new friend.

Question 13

Compare STM to WM?

Answer 13

STM= passive store for brief retention of information.
WM= storage and controlled processing of information in present moment.

Question 14

How do we find out the Capacity of the Working Memory (WM)?

Answer 14

Reading Span Task- ppt presented with statements- decide whether true or false and remember last word of each sentence. Given three sentences and have to say if true of false and name last word of sentence.
-working memory requires manipulation and processing of info rather than holding onto it.

Question 15

What do we know about working memory capacity, duration?

Answer 15

Duration is about 3s.
Capacity on average about 3-5 information elements.

Question 16

Detail the Baddeley and Hitch Working Memory Model (1974).

Answer 16

Hierarchical organisation, with multiple components with functional responsibilities. Interaction of attention, LTM with present stimuli.
Includes: Central Executive, Visuospatial Sketchpad, Episodic Buffer, Phonological Loop, Long-Term Memory.

Question 17

What does the Central Executive do?

Answer 17

Co-ordinates storage systems and control of attention to stimuli.

Question 18

What does the visuospatial sketchpad do?

Answer 18

Process visual imagery and spatial (knowledge of position of stuff around us) information in world around us. Visual= what, spatial= where.

Question 19

What does the episodic buffer do?

Answer 19

Episodic buffer binds multimodal information to form episodic memories.

Question 20

What does the phonological loop do?

Answer 20

Phonological loop controls sounds information.

Question 21

What is the mental rotation task?

Answer 21

By Sherperd + Melser, 1971. Highlights the visuospatial sketchpad. Ppt asked if object is the same, different or mirrored. Findings suggest the more an object been rotated from the original, the longer it takes to determine if the two images are same or mirrored. ( Involves visual memory and spatial memory. )

Question 22

What is the Word Length Effect?

Answer 22

Word length effect, Baddeley et al 1975. Can remember number of words we ca articulate in 2 seconds. Can’t ‘refresh’ (i.e. rehearse) the items in the phonological store withing 2 seconds the decay. Can recall more short words than long words- long words take longer to articulet (say/ subvocalise).

Question 23

What do you know about Lashely’s search for ‘engram’?

Answer 23

Trained rats to navigate a maze. Created lesions in different parts of brain + tested effects on maze performance. Size not location of lesions predicted performance. Cause different distributed parts of brain support memory.

Question 24

What areas of brain are involved in memory?

Answer 24

Frontal cortex: coordination of information working memory.
Temporal cortex: spatial memory storage.
Amygdala: implicit and emotional memory formation.
Hippocampus: explicit memory formation.
Cerebellum: implicit memory formation.
Other parts of cortex: distributed memory storage.

Question 25

Describe episodic memory?

Answer 25

Episodic memory: memory of personal experiences that can be explicitly stated, consisting of autobiographical events + their context (who, what, when, where and why).

Question 26

What is mental time travel (chromesthesia).

Answer 26

Capacity to mentally construct personal events from past and imagine possible scenarios in the future.

Question 27

What is Reminiscence Bump?

Answer 27

Superior memory for events occurring in adolescence and early adulthood. Between 4-5 start storing stronger memories- before this non which is why we have childhood amnesia. Encode lots of memories at reminiscent bump because we are encoding lots of new memories.

Question 28

What are flashbulb memories?

Answer 28

When it is emotionally significant or shocking.

Question 29

What is the photographic memory study?

Answer 29

Andi Bell, Word Memory Champion (1998, 2002, 2003) Can recall serial order of playing cards in 10 shuffled decks after 20 minutes studying. = Based on memory strategy, using training and economic device that exploit how our memory works.

Question 30

What is Superior Autobiographical Memory (SAM) or Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM) and what research displays it?

Answer 30

Parker, Cahil & McGaugh (2006) case study of AJ. Near perfect recall of events in own life + historical events when given dates by the researchers (checked against her diaries- 24 years). Remembering dominates life non-stop. Automatic + uncontrollable.

Question 31

Detail Leport et al (2012) study.

Answer 31

Found 10 additional individuals with superior autobiographical memory. Same level as AJ for autobiographical memories, but perform control level on standard memory tasks. MRI' performed on all subjects. Their size + shape of temporal lobe differed associated with episodic memory. Also size + shape of caudate nucleus (basal ganglia) associated with habits. Noted tendencies towards obsessive memory.

Question 32

What is hyperthymesia?

Answer 32

Highly superior autobiographical memory. Feels like living 2 lives at once- past + present simultaneously. Emotions associated with previous upsetting situations- with perfect recall of events and situations.

Question 33

What is a direct memory test to measure memory?

Answer 33

Explicitly told what to remember. Involves instructed encoding and explicit retrieval. Recall: generates information from memory. Open ended exam questions, digit recall task. Free recall: recall as many items as possible. Serial recall: recall items in order of their presentation Cued recall: recall items with help of a cue. Recall all odd digits first, then all even digits. DV: proportion of correctly recalled items.

Question 34

What is an indirect memory test?

Answer 34

Not explicitly told what to remember =, just told to think about it. Involves incidental encoding and implicit retrieval.

Question 35

How can we improve memory?

Answer 35

Can effect the encoding with levels of processing, spacing effect, serial position effect. Can effect retrieval with testing effect. Encoding specificity principle: transfers- appropriate processing.

Question 36

What does Craik +Tuvling (1975) Levels of Processing and Encoding Effect show us?

Answer 36

Show that depth of processing effects retrieval from memory. Structural-> phonemic-> category. Memory generally better after distributed practice rather than after massed practice. The longer the spacing, the better the memory is.

Question 37

What is Serial Position Effect?

Answer 37

Information encoded first (primacy) or last (recency) is recalled best.

Question 38

What is the testing effect?

Answer 38

Retrieval practice improves memory for delays longer than a few minutes.

Question 39

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 39

Matching context at encoding and retrieval aids episodic memory. E.g. Godden and Baddeleys diver study.

Question 40

What is Transfer appropriate processing, detail Morris et al's (1977) experiment?

Answer 40

First statement was for completion encoding? -the ____ had a silver engine-train. Used for recognition retrieval: was train one of the studied words? Second statement for phonemic encoding

Question 41

What is Semantic Memory?

Answer 41

General world knowledge including objects, people, concepts and words.

Question 42

Detail Collins + Quillian's (1969) hierarchical network model?

Answer 42

Access representations relevant to our concept through spreading activation between nodes via their connecting paths.

Question 43

What was the issue with the hierarchical organisation by Collins & Quillian's (1969)?

Answer 43

Does not account for semantic relatedness. hierarchy has later been replaced by semantic relatedness.

Question 44

What was Collins & Loftus (1975) associative network model?

Answer 44

All representations are related in a network of semantically linked representations.

Question 45

What is Semantic Dementia?

Answer 45

Syndrome of progressive deterioration in semantic memory, leading to loss of knowledge about objects, people, concepts and words.

Question 46

How are categorise formed in categorisation?

Answer 46

Semantic memory means we can form representations of categories (e.g. 'dog') based on regularities in world, allowing us to make predictions about what will happen. Defined by necessary and sufficient features.

Question 47

What are the criticisms of categorisation?

Answer 47

If you try to nail it down too much specific categorisation becomes very hard need many categorise. Family resemblance: different members of categories can share different features. Central tendency: categories exhibit an average ideal, classical theory doesn't account for central tendency. Graded membership: some members are more typical for a category than others.

Question 48

How do you measure categorisation?

Answer 48

Armstrong et al's typicality experiment: graded membership exists even in odd numbers. Typicality rating Asked ppt to rank chairs from being best example to worst example of chair. -> DV: average rank or rating. Exemplar production: recall as many pieces of furniture as you can. -> DV's frequency of production and/ or position in the production.

Question 49

What is the modern theories of categorisation: Prototype Theory (Rosch).

Answer 49

Categories determined by mental representations that is weighted average of all category members. May or may not be actual entity. If seen object matches prototype we put it into category.

Question 50

What are the issues with prototype theory?

Answer 50

Categories consist of of separate representations of physical features of experienced examples of the category. ->people can tell category size + can add new members.

Question 51

What is a flaw of exemplar theory, theoretical circularity?

Answer 51

How can people retrieve all category members to define a category if retrieval is based on category membership? Can't explain how people form abstract categories of things about physical features.

Question 52

What is the explanation- based theory of categorisation?

Answer 52

Categorise based on common causal characteristics rather than physical features. -Previous accounts waterfowl: animas with webbed feet. -Explanation-based account of waterfowl: animals that swim. Categorise made ad hoc, using world knowledge and explanaitions.

Question 53

What was involved in Barsalou;s experiment into if ad hoc categorise (e.g. distinctive smell) had same features as common categorise (e.g. fruit)?

Answer 53

High average agreement among participants regarding category membership, typicality of members, and production of exemplars. Ad hoc categories similar to common categories that they exhibit family resemblance, central tendency, and graded membership.

Question 54

What is a schemata?

Answer 54

Semantic memory also enables us to form schemata (e.g. buying things) that capture commonly encountered aspects of life. Can be thought of as explanation-based event categorise.

Question 55

What are scripts?

Answer 55

Semantic memory enables us to form scripts (e.g. eat in restaurants) that capture the order of events for common aspects of life. Can be thought of as temporally ordered schemata.

Question 56

According to Alba & Hasher, 1983, what are the five primary schema processes and are they involved in encoding or retrieving?

Answer 56

Encoding: selection, abstraction, interpretation, integration. Retrieval: reconstruction.

Question 57

Detail Selection with reference to the Bransford and Johnson's experiment (1972)?

Answer 57

Selection. Three conditions. 1.Study text without being told the topic. 2. Study text given topic after. 3. Study text given topic before. =Schema activation benefits encoding of schema-relevant information.

Question 58

Detail abstraction with reference to Carmichael et al's (1932) experiment?

Answer 58

Surface form of information (e.g. ambiguities in picture, verbatim wording) is converted into a more abstract representation that captures that meaning but is schema- consistent.

Question 59

Detail interpretation with reference to Johnson et al's (1973) experiment?

Answer 59

Information we are given can effect our interpretation of events. One group told man slipped on wet patch and dropped delicate pitcher. Other group told he slipped on wet spot and just missed the delicate pitcher. First group much more likely to say that the man broke the pitcher when it fell on the floor. ->Interpretation is used to 'fill in the gaps' in a story with schema- consistent information.

Question 60

Detail integration with reference to Bransford et al's 1972 experiment?

Answer 60

In Bransford et al's experiment. Given small bits of info about tree, box, chair and colour of tree and their positionings. Then asked question about which sentence heard ( but with information all combined together). -> Integration of information is used to form schema-consistent holistic representations.

Question 61

Detail reconstruction with reference to Bartlett's (1932) experiment?

Answer 61

British students studied Native American tale 'The War of the Ghpsts' asked to recall it after dates, weeks months and years. ->reconstruction process means they have been changed to fit what they culturally know in schema processes of reconstruction. Details reconstructed to be simplified and fit cultural schema.

Question 62

Explain Brewer and Treyens (1981) experiment.

Answer 62

Ppt waiting in graduate student office and later asked to recall everything they could remember about the room.

Question 63

How does Schema Theory effect out memory?

Answer 63

(Schema Theory- selection, abstraction, interpretation, integration, reconstruction). Affect encoding and retrieval of information. These can change our memories and, thus their correctness.

Question 64

What are the 'Seven Sins of Memory'.

Answer 64

Transience, Absentmindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, Persistence.

Question 65

What is Transcience?

Answer 65

Decreasing accessibility of memories over time. -Ebbinghaus' (1885) experiment: rows of nonsense syllables (consonant- vowel-consonant trigrams). =Ebbinghaus' Curve. Why do we forget? -Decay: forgetting due to the passage of time. -Interference: forgetting due to competition between memories.

Question 66

What is Thorndike's (1914) 'law of disuse'?

Answer 66

More time elapses without using a memory more the memory decays away until it is entirely forgotten- don't use it you loose it.

Question 67

What was McGeoch's criticism of Law of misuse?

Answer 67

Passage of time nothing itself, just correlates with the process that causes forgetting e.g. rusting car, oxidation causes rust but happens over time.

Question 68

What is proactive interference?

Answer 68

Older memories impair the retrieval of new memories.

Question 69

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 69

New memories impair retrieval of older memories.

Question 70

What is the Brown-Peterson Paradigm?

Answer 70

1. Learn a list of memoranda- trigram. 2. Complete a distracting task. 3. Recall the memoranda. ->The more time passes, greater the forgetting. But is it due to passage of time or due to interference.

Question 71

What is Keppel + Underwood's (1962) tested for proactive interference?

Answer 71

Better memory with less proactive interference from old information. Memory preserved for

Question 72

How did Jenkins & Dallenbach's (1924) experiment test for retroactive interference?

Answer 72

Ppt have to study letter order, either stay awake or sleep then have to recall after 1,2,4 or 8 hours. =Found that better memory with less retroactive interference from new information.

Question 73

What is absentmindedness?

Answer 73

Lapses of attention that affect memory and learning.

Question 74

How did Kane et al's (2017) study test absentmindedness?

Answer 74

Ppt did a pre stats test, then a 50 minutes stat lecture, then a post stats test. Kane made ppt complete mind wandering probe during lecture. Given seven categorise 1-3= useful mind wandering e.g. lecture related ideas. 4-7= task- unrelated thoughts (TUTs). =Showed correlation between performance on stats tests + TUTs. The more off-task wandering, the poorer the learning from the lecture.

Question 75

How do multitasking habits lead to TUTs (Task unrelated thoughts)?

Answer 75

More multitasking habits students reported, more off task mind wandering, they experienced. Have an indirect effect on learning outcomes through mind wandering- even though students didn't even use their devices in study.

Question 76

What is 'blocking'?

Answer 76

Information is present but temporarily inaccessible.

Question 77

What did D'Angelo & Humphreys (2015) experiment investigate and how?

Answer 77

'tip of the tongue phenomenon'. Induced tip of the tongue state; what is the word for goods imported or exported illegally- contraband.

Question 78

What is misattribtuion?

Answer 78

Attributing memories to an incorrect source. Source monitoring: where do memories come from? -Internal: did I do this or did I just imagine it? -External: who told me about this? -Reality: did I really see this or did someone mention it? -> flashbulb memories. Cryptomnesia: unconscious plagiarism.

Question 79

What are the different types of source information?

Answer 79

=Details to help identify sources of memory. -Perceptual: perceptual detail often higher for memories experienced than from other sources- touch, smell, tastes. -Contextual: context in which memory was acquired is consistent with an expected source. -Affective: emotional reaction in context of information. -Cognitive: mental processing of the information.

Question 80

What is misattribution in regards to the Unabomber?

Answer 80

From 1978- 1996, mailed or band delivered series of increasingly sophisticated bombs. 1987- 1 eyewitness account- sketch artists captured likeness. When witness asked for second sketch, revisited memory and described sketch artist more than bomber.

Question 81

Detail Roediger & McDermott's (1995) study into Misattribution?

Answer 81

Ppt given list of words to study, then given a recall or recognition task. People falsely recalled related concepts that where never presented. =False memories; remembering things that never happened.

Question 82

What is suggestibility?

Answer 82

Suggestibility: implanted memories that never occurred. Loftuc + Pickrell's (1995): ppt given 3 ture childhood memories and 1 false memory. Then interviewed 1-2 weeks later, and again after another 1-2 weeks. =About 1/4 ppt falsely 'remembered' to have been lost in a mall. False memories can be implanted via suggestion.

Question 83

What is Wade et al's (2002) study into suggestibility?

Answer 83

Showed doctored images of ppt in hot air balloon. Asked them about their experience. Half ppt demonstrated false memories implanted via suggestion. False 'evidence' such as doctored photograph contributes to formation of false memories.

Question 84

Detail Zaragoza et al's (2001) experiments?

Answer 84

Ppts had to watch 8 minute video excerpt, then answer questions with guessing enforced or discouraged. Then did a recognition task 1 week later and recall task 4-6 weeks later. Free recall at 4-6 weeks: ppt recalled 20 % of their forced confabulations as their own memories. Effect was particularly strong for confabulations for which they received confirmatory feedback.

Question 85

What was Fazio et al's (2013) experiment into semantic memory?

Answer 85

Given short- answer pre-test, have to read fiction story with or without misinformation. Then given short answer post- test. (misinformation relevant to questions in pre and post test). =Misinformation effect: altering memories to conform to recently encountered but incorrect information. Shows how misinformation can be proliferated.

Question 86

What is bias?

Answer 86

Distorting memories of the past based on current knowledge and beliefs.

Question 87

What did Blank et al's (2003) experiment into bias do?

Answer 87

Ppt predict German parliament election outcomes. September 1998: election. October 1988: ppt recall predictions. -> Hindsight bias: misremember memories as being more like current knowledge state. -> Hindsight outcomes closest to actual outcomes than their foresight predictions.

Question 88

What is persistence?

Answer 88

Unwanted recollection that cannot be forgotten. E.g. war/ violence or earworms.

Question 89

What is amnesia?

Answer 89

A deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or psychological trauma. -Retrograde: loss of ability to access memories prior to the event. -Anterograde: loss of ability to store new memories after the event.

Question 90

What application does memory have to the law?

Answer 90

Investigations and subsequent convictions often rely on evidence from Eye-witness-testimony (EWT). Can be inaccurate- leading to wrongful convictions. Understanding EWT and memory is crucial for functioning justice.