Cognitive Processing Flashcards
1
Q
HM Aim
A
In 1953, Scoville performed surgery on HM to cure him of his epileptic seizures. It is important to note that it was a surgical procedure, and only became a study once memory damage was noted.
2
Q
MSM studies
A
HM|Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
3
Q
HM bg info
A
HM fell off his bike which caused sever epileptic seizures
4
Q
HM method
A
During surgery, Scoville removed brain tissues from anterior two thirds of the hippocampus.
5
Q
HM results
A
After the surgery, the seizures reduced, but HM suffered with amnesia for the rest of his life. HM lost ability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia) and also had partial retrograde amnesia - the inability to recall memories formed before the amnesia-inducing event. However, HM’s early childhood memories stayed intact and his IQ remained the same.
6
Q
HM Conclusion
A
Thus, this study acts as evidence for STM and LTM being in different stores as HM demonstrated an inability to transfer information into LTM, although he could partially make short-term memories. Also maintained procedural memory. Suggests that hippocampus must be integral in transfer of memories from STM to LTM
7
Q
HM strengths
A
- Case study - allows for the triangulation of
researcher, data and method - Longitudinal study- over 50 years
- Allows for the deeper, more detailed
research compared to the amount that
would have been able to be found had it
been a shorter snapshot study
- Allows for the deeper, more detailed
- Theoretical generalisability
- Can be used as a counter to lack off
generalisability - E.g. Creating a counter:
○ HM was quite “normal” and
“healthy.” Since all humans have
hippocampus, can theorise that if
all humans had their hippocampus
removed, they would experience
the same symptoms (not being able
to transfer from short to long term
memory)
- Can be used as a counter to lack off
- Qualitative data- rich, detailed
- Ecological validity - the situation occurred
naturally
8
Q
HM weaknesses
A
- Possible researcher bias
- Retrospective study: Type of longitudinal case
study design in which all data are collected
after the fact (i.e. After HM’s operation)- Researchers had no knowledge of HM’s
abilities prior to operation
- Researchers had no knowledge of HM’s
- Case study –> population validity –> lowered
generalisability
9
Q
HM EC
A
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Protection from harm
- Vulnerable patient
10
Q
G&C aim
A
The aim of the study was to investigate serial position effect.
11
Q
GC method
A
The study used a repeated measures design in which participants, 240 army-enlisted men, were required to memorise lists of words followed by a free-recall task. In the first condition, participants presented with recordings of 20-word lists consisting of common one-syllable nouns. Immediately after hearing the words they were required to do a free-recall task for two minutes. In the second condition, researchers introduced a delay between the end of the list and the start of recall. During the delay, participants engaged in a filler task: counting backwards from a given number for 30 seconds. The filler task was meant to prevent rehearsal.
12
Q
GC results
A
The results of the trials in condition 1 clearly demonstrated serial position effect in both its aspects: participants were better at remembering words at the start of the list (primacy effect) and at the end of the list (recency effect), and this was not dependent on the number of repetitions of each word
In condition 2, the resulting data indicated that participants were still successful at recalling the words from the start of the list (primacy effect observed), but were no longer able to recall the words from the end of the list (recency effect disappeared)
13
Q
GC conclusion
A
The researchers concluded that the first items on the list tend to get rehearsed more, moving to LTM which is unaffected by delay. Additionally, the last words on the list are not rehearsed as much, which is why they disappeared from the STM in the second condition. This shows that STM and LTM have separate mechanisms behind them.
14
Q
GC strengths
A
Lab experiment
* High internal validity
○ Control
○ Replicable
○ Able to establish cause and effect
* Therefore generalisability
15
Q
GC limitations
A
Low ecological validity and demand characteristics
The experiment was done in a lab which is an artificial environment, which may have caused the participants to show demand characteristics.
Sample bias
* All men in the sample were from the army - career may have affected their ability to memorise.
* Androcentric - only males were used for the experiment, meaning thee results are not generalizable to females
* Beta bias - assumes that the results can be directly applied to females as well, minimising the differences between them.
16
Q
WMM studies
A
Landry and Bartling (2011)|KF - Shallice and Warrington (1970)
17
Q
LB aim
A
To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.
18
Q
LB method
A
The participants were psychology students who were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the experimental group, participants saw a list of letters, then had to recall them while speaking aloud (articulatory suppression task). In the control groups, the participants saw a list of letters, but had to recall without speaking aloud.
19
Q
LB results
A
The results showed that the scores from the experimental group were much lower than those of the control group, meaning that the participants had a more difficult time recalling information.
20
Q
LB conclusion
A
The data seems to support the prediction of the WMM that disruption of the phonological loop through the use of articulatory suppression results in less accurate working memory.
21
Q
LB strengths
A
Lab experiment
* High internal validity
○ Control
○ Replicable
○ Able to establish cause and effect
○ reliable
22
Q
LB limitations
A
Sample bias
Psychology students were used for the study and are not representative of the population
Low ecological validity
The study was an experiment conducted in a lab where the variables were highly controlled, meaning it does not model a realistic situation
Demand characteristics and social desirability effect
The psychology students may have predicted what the aim of the study was and behaved a certain way to achieve certain results. Furthermore, they may have wanted to be liked by the experimenters, thus showing SDE by demonstrating demand characteristics
Cultural bias
The experiment was done in the USA, meaning that the findings may not be applicable to other cultures
23
Q
KF aim
A
To investigate the impact of brain damage on short-term memory.
24
Q
KF method
A
A series of tests were done on patient KF who had suffered from brain damage due to a motorcycle accident. He was presented with information orally and then visually which he had to recall.
25
KF results
KF was able to remember visual information much better than verbal, and could still transfer information from STM to LTM.
26
KF conclusion
This supports the WMM because it shows that there are different stores for different kind of information. KF's ability to recognise visual and auditory information, but not verbal supports the existence of different components for information.
27
KF strengths
Case study:
Since the research method was a case study, it was also longitudinal, which allowed researchers to be more precise in their investigation and findings. This also allowed the researchers to find patterns over time in the patient's memory.
28
KF limitations
Case study
Since the research was only on one patient, it was difficult to generalise to the wider population.
Researcher bias
The researchers developed a relationship with KF due to the study being longitudinal, which may have influenced the results and gotten too involved because they had become emotionally attached.
29
KF EC
Since KF suffered from brain damage, it is difficult to know how well-informed he was about this study. He may not have completely understood what he was getting into, which is important as it is hard to be certain about whether or not he gave consent to the experiment.
30
schema theory studies
Brewer and Treyens|Loftus and Palmer
31
BT aim
To investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.
32
BT method
The sample consisted of university psychology students. The participants had to sit in a room made to look life and office, in which there were typical objects as well as sever strange objects placed inside. Then the participants were taken out of the office and asked to recall the objects inside it.
33
BT results
When participants had to recall through writing or drawing, they were more likely to recall items which were congruent with their schemas, even if they weren't actually in the office. Participants had a tendency to change the nature of the object to match their schema. Some participants also remembered certain objects incongruent with their schemas.
34
BT conclusion
The researchers concluded that schemas affect the reconstruction of memory shown by how the participants recalled objects that were typically in an office even if they weren't present. Also, we have a tendency tor recall objects that don't fit into our schemas because they stand out from what we expect to see.
35
BT strengths
High reliability
Due to its low ecological validity, the experiment is reliable because it is easily replicated due to standardised instructions and controlled variables.
36
BT weaknesses
Low ecological validity
The experiment was done in an artificial environment. This behaviour may not be applicable to other situations.
Demand characteristics
Psychology students were used. They may have shown demand characteristics because they knew what to expect from a psychology experiment.
Sample bias
Only university students were used for the experiment, meaning the sample was not representative of the population.
37
LPa aim
To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect an eyewitness's estimation of speed.
38
LPa method
45 students were divided into 5 groups. They were shown film recordings of traffic accidents after which they had to answer a questionnaire about it. There was one critical question in which the students were asked how fat the car was going during the accident. The word "accident" was changed to varying degrees of intensity i.e. "hit", "collided", "smashed". The different words were used because they have different connotations which in turn triggers different schemas.
39
LPa results
The mean estimates of speed were highest in the 'smashed' condition (40.8 mph) and lowest in the 'contacted' group (31.8 mph),meaning the critical question where the words had a more intense connotation had a higher estimate of speed.
40
LPa conclusion
The researchers concluded that there were two interpretations of the findings. The first was response bias, wherein using a verb with higher intensity such as "smashed" biases the response to a higher estimate. The second in memory change, where the question may have cause the participant's memory representation to change. For example, a verb of higher intensity such as "smashed" may have caused the subject to remember the memory as being more severe than it really was.
41
LPa strengths
Practical applications: adds to credibility of theory
* Proved that memory is not reliable
* In the court, while eye-witnesses can be brought in, their word alone can not be used as a means to persecute someone.
* Police should avoid asking leading questions
* High replicability
* Control of variables
* Standardisation of method
42
LPa weaknesses
* Artificial setting - lack of ecological validity
* Specific to loftus: they were her students
* Could have been demand characteristics
'screw you' effect - extraneous variable that could have happened if the student didn't like her and hence wanted to ruin her experiment
43
TDM studies
Kahneman and Tversky|Alter et al
44
KT aim
To test people's mental shortcuts and biases when making decisions.
45
KT method
The sample groups of 95 participants were given the following scenario: a certain town is served by either a larger hospital where about 45 babies are born each day, or a smaller hospital about 15 babies are born each day. While 50% of all babies are boys, the exact percentage varies from day to day. For one year, each hospital recorded the days on which more than 60 percent of the babies were boys. Which hospital do you think recorded more such days: the larger hospital, the smaller hospital, or both about the same (within 5% of each other). The researchers then recorded the participants responses.
46
KT results
The correct answer in the smaller hospital. However, most participants got this wrong and chose option three, presumably assuming that since the birth-rate is 50/50, the probability in this scenario would be too.
47
KT conclusion
Overall, Kahneman & Tversky clearly demonstrated how people will tend to use System One to come to a quick decision/conclusion, whilst simultaneously ignoring other important information that could be used by System Two thinking, to come to a more logical and rational decision. This study demonstrated how people tend to employ System One’s more intuitive and automatic thinking from the Dual Processing model when faced with probability scenarios, or situations where there’s potential for an information overload. `
48
KT strengths
* simplicity of the study allows for it to replicated easily, which helps to establish the reliability of the study’s results
* highly controlled true experiment which increases internal validity allowing results to be generalized
HOWEVER (heuristics point) this provides evidence for System 1
49
KT weaknesses
* demonstrate usage of heuristics in participants, offering a question that was cognitively undemanding
* Internal validity - participant variables should be considered it was not checked prior to the experiment if any participants had a prior background in statistics
50
Alter aim
To investigate how font affects thinking.
51
Alter method
40 Princeton students completed Cognitive Reflections Test (CRT). This test is made up of 3 questions, and measures whether people use fast thinking to answer the question (and get it wrong) or use slow thinking (and get it right). Half the students were given the CRT in an easy-to-read font, while the other half were given the CRT in a difficult-to-read font.
52
Alter results
Among students given the CRT easy font, only 10% of participants answered all three questions correctly, while among the students given the CRT in difficult font, 65% of participants were fully correct.
53
Alter conclusion
When a question is written in a difficult-to-read font causes participants to slow down, and engage in more deliberate effortful System 2 thinking, resulting in answering the question correctly. When the question is written in an easy-to-read font, participants use quick, unconscious and automatic System 1 thinking to come up with the obvious (but incorrect) answer.
54
Alter strengths
* Atler et al. research can be applied in education settings.
* Disfluency manipulations that actually produce higher difficulties at encoding (e.g. Deleting words from a passage) were found to be beneficial. Such difficulties can be desirable, because they require more generative processing at encoding, producing stronger memory traces and hence fostering later recall.
55
Alter weaknesses
* Very few studies REPLICATING the original findings of Atler et al. font experiment
* Publication bias
* If results aren't significant aren't significant, often aren't published
* Low population validity
* Study only involved Princeton undergraduate students, which are clearly not representative of the general population - therefore the rsults may not generalise to other groups of participants
The CRT is made up of "trick" questions, which rarely come up in everyday life. Therefore, the ecological validity of this study is low, as the real-world significance of there findings is unclear
56
cognitive psychology
is about how our mind deals with information, and our abilities to use that information
57
memory is
the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information
58
two types of memory
declarative and procedural
59
declarative memory
memories which can be consciously recalled (such as facts and people).
60
types of declarative memory
episodic and semantic
61
episodic memory
the memory of autobiographical events that occurred at a particular time and place
62
semantic memory
general knowledge of facts and people including concepts and schemas
63
procedural memory
the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things.
64
capacity
how much
65
encoding
the form in which
66
duration
how long
67
memory models
provide frameworks for understanding the conceptualisation of the processes in memory
68
three types of memory
sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM
69
types of memory aka
memory stores
70
how many stores does a stimulus encounter?
any stimulus that a person has encountered has been in one or more of these stores, in this sequence
71
environment --> SM
An environmental stimulus enters our SM for 0-3 seconds. It is vital that we pay attention to this information, as it will decay otherwise
72
SM --> STM
must pay attention so that the information moves into STM. This memory store has a duration of 15-30 seconds and a capacity of 5-9 items.
73
keep info within STM
practice maintenance rehearsal, which is saying or thinking about something repeatedly. If we fail to rehearse it, the information decays. Information can also be removed from the STM through displacement, in which the existing information is replaced by new information
74
STM --> LTM
Through elaborative rehearsal, which involves using various strategies such as mnemonics or linking it to pre-existing knowledge. Occasionally, information may have to retrieved from STM back into LTM, but the capacity is potentially unlimited with the duration being anywhere from a few minutes to a lifetime
75
losing information from LTM
Information can be lost from LTM through either retrieval failure, which maybe context or state (physical/emotional) dependent or interference, which can occur proactively, where old information in the LTM prevents the learning of new information, or vice versa – retroactively.
76
WMM
- based on MSM
- challenges idea that STM is a single, passive store
77
components of WM
- central executive (CE)
- visuospatial sketchpad (VS)
- phonological loop (PL)
- episodic buffer (EB)
78
central executive (CE)
The controlling system that monitors and coordinates operations of the other components - slave systems (SS). It has limited capacity and can process any sensory information. Additionally, it has attentional control at automatic level, based on habit, and supervisory attentional level, which creates new strategies.
79
slave systems of CE
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
80
phonological loop
divided into:
- articulatory control system (inner voice): holds
information in a verbal form, i.e. trying to
remember a phone number by repeating it to
yourself
- phonological store (inner ear):
holds speech base material in a phonological form for 1.5-2 seconds
81
visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye)
helps us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment, and deals with visual and spatial information from either SM or LTM
82
what happens if we use the same SS on different tasks?
using the same SS on two different tasks will hinder memory
83
episodic buffer
acts as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed and assumed to be controlled by CE through conscious awareness. It resembles the concept of episodic memory and further acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both LTM and the components of working memory.
84
strengths of MSM
* It's a clear simple model - can be criticised for simplicity but more recent research relies on this model
* There is research to support the theory of separate memory stores -both in cognitive research and in biological case studies of patients with brain damage
* Can be applied in terms of memorisation strategies, such as chunking and rehearsal
* Gave psychologists a model to talk about memory and generated further research on memory
85
weaknesses of MSM
* The experiments lack ecological validity because they were <-- all done in labs
* The linear order is too simplistic to account for the multiple ways in which memory stores communicate with each other
* Assumes that each store works as an independent unit
* It does not refer to control processes (e.g. Attention/rehearsal) to the extent required
* Can not account for how interaction between different stored takes place
* E.g. How info from LTM may indicate what is important and relevant to pay attention to in the initial sensory memory phase
* Does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal or times that we rehears a lot to remember material and it is not transferred to LTM
Does not explain memory distortion
86
MSM vs WMM: explaining strategies and rehearsal
MSM can’t explain why memory strategies and rehearsal are efficient whereas WMM can explain through dual processing (using dual task technique) why and how memory can be affected when two similar modules are used
87
MSM vs WMM: forgetting
MSM does consider forgetting, wherein if it is not passed onto to the next memory store, it is lost though decay or displacement. On the other hand, WMM does not consider forgetting, as the focus is on the impact of competing dual process tasks that can overload modules/slave systems.
88
MSM vs WMM: holistic vs reductionist
This is demonstrated by MSM as it focuses on SM, STM and LTM and the capacity, duration, and encoding of each. However, with little depth into each specific store, the MSM model is simplistic and linear. On the other hand, WMM takes a reductionist approach of explaining memory through its individual, smaller components. While this approach allows us to understand in detail how the processes work, it fails to consider the other stores, meaning that it is not capable of explaining how all three work together. However, it is important to note that while the WMM is constantly evolving as new information is learnt, the MSM model is no longer used by researchers.
89
MSM vs WMM: nomothetic vs ideographic
MSM takes a nomothetic approach, which involves establishing laws or generalizations that apply to all people eg: HM evidence of separate STM and LTM further supported by much research the role of hippocampus in both animals and humans suggesting this is universal. In contrast, WMM takes the ideographic approach and can account for individual differences eg: KF inability to encode visual versus acoustic info.
90
what are practical applications
way in which the acquired knowledge and understanding of memory and its processes through the models can be potentially applied to real-life situations
91
MSM vs WMM: practical applications
In situations where memorising and learning information, such as in school, the MSM does not provide beneficial applications due to its tendency to overemphasise the benefits of maintenance rehearsal while disregarding the potential of elaborative rehearsal. Additionally, the MSM lacks significant practical applications in terms of diagnosis and intervention. In comparison, the WMM provides much greater practical applications, as they can be used to assist in the assessment of Dyslexia, for example, which effects both the PL and VS. Furthermore, the WMM is useful in an educational setting as well as it can helps teachers to better help their students with ADHD, in which executive function issues are common, by focusing on verbalising and using chunking techniques in addition to writing instructions. Hence, the two memory models significantly differ in the number of practical applications that they provide.
92
schema theory
a cognitive theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge and use it
93
schema
a framework for organising information about the world, events, people and actions that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify the world around us and help predict what to expect in a situation based on what has happened before.
94
bottom up processing
taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it (what am I seeing?)
95
top-down processing
using models, ideas and expectations to interpret sensory information (Is that something I've seen before?)
96
schema theory and memory processes
encoding: sensory information is put into
memory
storage: creating a trace of the encoded
information in memory
retrieval: using the stored information schema
processing can affect memory at all
stages.
97
level
eliminate unnecessary information
98
sharpen
add or exaggerate details
99
assimilate data
change it to fit stereotypes or pre-existing schema
100
scripts
schemas which provide information about the sequence of events that occur in a more-or-less unchanging order
101
self-schemas
organise information we have about ourselves
102
social schemas
for example stereotypes represent information about groups of people
103
what can't schema theory explain?
Schema theory can not explain why some people remember certain things and others remember others
104
schema theory strengths
- research supports the idea that schemas
affect cognitive processes such as memory
- theory useful for understanding how people
categorise information, interpret stories
- theory has contributed to understanding of memory distortions
105
schema theory limitations
- not entirely clear how schemas are acquired
in the first place or the exact way they
influence cognitive processes
- schema theory can't accounts for why schema-inconsistent information is sometimes recalled
106
schema theory testable
schema theory is testable, as in the studies by Bartlett and Brewer and Treyens
107
schema theory applications
Schema theory has been applied to help us understand how memory works. It also helps us to understand memory distortion. Schema theory has also been applied to abnormal psychology (therapy for depression and anxiety), relationships (theories of mate selection) and in health psychology (health campaigns to change unhealthy behaviours). It is a robust theory that has many applications across many fields of psychology. One of these fields is the view on eyewitness testimony and whether it should be considered as valid evidence.
108
schema theory construct validity
Does it really measure what it intends to measure: schemas? The concept of schema is too vague and hypothetical to be useful. Schema cannot be observed and therefore many researcher criticize the theory since the concept they are trying to measure vague.
109
schema theory bias
Schema theory is applied across cultures. There is no apparent bias in the research, although most of the early research was done in the West. (Bartlett is an example of that. He used English participants. But schemas have been investigate cross-culturally and they are universal.)
110
schema theory predictive validity
The theory helps to predict behaviour. We can predict, for example, what types of information will be best recalled when given a list of words. Trends, such as omitting information that is not of high relevance to the individual (as we can see in Bartlett's results), are commonly seen in individuals recalling a news story. However, we cannot predict exactly what an individual will recall. From Loftus and Palmer's research we can predict that eye-witnesses who are asked leading questions in court may use their existing schemas instead of then actual memory of an event when answering questions.
111
two types of thinking from dual process model
rational and intuitive
112
rational thinking
- controlled
- goal-oriented and requires intentional effort
and time, analyses/controls for biases
113
intuitive thinking
- automatic
- quick thinking; requires limited effort and is influenced by biases
114
heuristics
mental shortcuts (rules) that allow people to solve problems and make judgement quickly and efficiently; a 'rule' used to make decisions or form judgements
115
framing
A cognitive heuristic in which people tend to reach conclusions based on the 'framework' within which a situation was presented
116
thinking
the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, and make predictions about the world in general. There are several components of thinking - these include problem solving, creativity, reasoning and decision making
117
decision making
the process enabling an individual to compare mental representations and choose the most appropriate alternative given the environmental context. Decision making is needed during problem-solving to reach a conclusion
118
problem solving
thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems by means of a set of mental strategies. The concepts of problem-solving, decision making and thinking are very much interconnected.
119
judgement
about estimating (or guessing) magnitudes and probabilities
120
what is the aim of system 1 and 2
Attempts to explain two systems people use when processing information to make judgements and decisions: system 1 and 2
121
system 1
- intuitive thinking
- often employs heuristics
- allows for efficient processing of the often
complex world around us, but may be prone
to errors when our assumptions do not match
the reality of a specific situation
- Gilbert and Gill (2000) have argued that we
become more likely to use System 1 thinking
when our cognitive load is high
122
Different heuristics used in system 1 processing
- representative heuristic
- availability heuristic
- anchoring bias
123
representative heuristic
people tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a 'comparable known' event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar
124
how do errors made from system 1 impact us
These errors may have greater consequence in our day to day lives because System 1 thinking is expected to create a greater feeling of certitude - certainty that our initial response is correct
125
system 2
- rational thinking
- Assumed to require more effort
- Starts by thinking carefully about all of the
possible ways we could interpret a situation
and gradually eliminates possibilities based on
sensory evidence until we arrive at a solution
- Rational thinking allows use to analyse the
world around us and think carefully about
what is happening, why it is happening, what
is most likely to happen next and how we
might influence the situation
- This mode of thinking is less likely to create
feeling of certitude and confidence
126
characteristics of systems 1 vs 2
1. context-dependent (focuses on existing
evidence and ignored absent evidence) vs
abstract
2. concern everyday decision making vs
conscious reasoning
3. generates impressions and inclinations vs
logical and reliable
4. not logic based and prone to error vs slow
and requiring effort
5. operates automatically and quickly with little
or no effort vs slow and requiring effor
127
using system 1 and 2 together
We often use both of these systems when addressing a problem - System 1 will reach a quick conclusion and then System 2 will go into further analysis to hopefully reach a "more correct" conclusion. Because System 1 is activated before System 2 can do its work, often System 1 interferes with the effectiveness of System 2.
128
what did alter et al argue?
Argued that whether system 1 or system 2 is activated depends on the perceived ease if difficulty associated with a cognitive task, which can be operationalised by printing text in fluent or disfluent fonts.
E.g. if information processing is perceived as easy (fluent font) it is more likely that System 1 is activated, leading to an effortless and intuitive processing. If, on the other hand, information processing is perceived as difficult (disfluent font), System 2 will be more likely activated, resulting in more invested mental effort and analytic processing, which affect social judgements and improved performance in reasoning tasks.
129
strengths of DPM
* The distinction between System 1 and System
2 thinking is well supported by research, such
as Atler & Oppenheimer's study on the effects
of font on the CRT (cognitive reflections test)
* The theory can explain why people can
sometimes make poor decisions whenever
they rely on System 1 to come up with a fast,
effortless (but sometimes wrong) answer
* Dual process theory is also consistent with
evolution. System 1 is believed to have
evolved in the distant past to make quick,
potentially life saving decisions, while System
2 is a more modern adaptation to help us
think deliberately and carefully. If a snake is
wrapped around your leg, you don't want to
think about it for very long - you need to act
fast, and this is where System 1 really shines
* There is biological evidence that different
types of thinking may be processed in
different parts of the brain. Eg; damage to the
brain (e.g. Ventro Medial Prefrontal Cortex-
vmPFC) is a factor that can affect how we
process information and making decisions.
130
DPM weaknesses
* The model can seem to be overly reductionist
as it does not clearly explain how (or even if)
these modes of thinking interact or how our
thinking and decision making could be
influenced by emotion.
* However, System 1 and System 2 must be
understood as simply being metaphors for
different decision making processes. There
are not actually two different parts of the
brain called "System 1" and "System 2". In
fact, many parts of the brain are involved in
both System 1 and System 2 thinking
* The definitions of System 1 and System 2 are
not always clear. For example, fast processing
indicates the use of System 1 rather than
System 2 processes. However, just because a
processing is fast does not mean it is done by
System 1. Experience can influence System 2
processing to go faster.
* Not all researchers agree that there are two
systems. Some alternate models of thinking
have suggested that there are four (or more)
different systems of thinking
