cognitive psychology Flashcards
(105 cards)
1
Q
What are the three distinct memory stores in the multi-store model of memory
A
Sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
2
Q
What happens to information in the sensory memory if not attended to?
A
It decays and is lost.
3
Q
How long does information last in the sensory memory store?
A
Around 1 second.
4
Q
What is the capacity of the sensory memory store?
A
Very large; it can take in lots of information without being attended to.
5
Q
How long does information remain in the STM if not rehearsed?
A
Up to 30 seconds.
6
Q
What is the capacity of STM?
A
5-9 items or chunks of information (7 ± 2).
7
Q
What happens to information in STM if not rehearsed?
A
It is lost through displacement.
8
Q
How long can information remain in LTM?
A
Potentially a lifetime.
9
Q
What is the capacity of LTM?
A
Infinite, but information can be lost through decay and interference.
10
Q
How is information in LTM primarily encoded?
A
Semantically (by meaning).
11
Q
(strength)What did Glanzer’s study show about the MSM?
A
It supported the idea that STM and LTM are separate stores because participants recalled words at the start (LTM) and end (STM) of a list better than those in the middle.
12
Q
Why is laboratory evidence, such as Glanzer’s study, a weakness of the MSM?
A
Because it used artificial tasks (e.g., memorising word lists), which do not represent real-life memory use.
13
Q
How does the case study of HM support the MSM?
A
HM’s STM functioned normally, but he couldn’t transfer information to LTM after hippocampus removal, supporting the idea that STM is the gateway to LTM.
14
Q
How does KF’s case challenge the MSM?
A
KF’s LTM functioned normally even though his STM was damaged, challenging the linear nature of the model.
15
Q
How can the MSM help people with dementia?
A
By helping them rehearse information using memory aids (e.g., diaries), improving memory and quality of life.
16
Q
Why is the MSM considered reductionist?
A
It isolates three specific memory stores and ignores other ways complex memories are created, such as flashbulb memories.
17
Q
What was the aim of Baddeley’s (1966b) study?
A
To investigate if LTM is impaired by semantically similar words or acoustically similar words.
18
Q
What experimental design was used in Baddeley’s study?
A
Independent groups design.
19
Q
How many participants were involved in Baddeley’s study?
A
72 participants (students and housewives).
20
Q
What is a strength of using volunteer sampling in Baddeley’s study?
A
It is time-efficient as memory can be tested on anyone without requiring specific criteria.
21
Q
What is a weakness of using volunteer sampling in Baddeley’s study?
A
It may include individuals who enjoy memory tests, potentially skewing results and reducing generalisability.
22
Q
In Baddeleys study What were the four conditions participants were allocated to?
A
Acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar word lists.
23
Q
How were the words presented during Baddeley study?
A
Words were shown in a set order at a rate of one word every three seconds using a slide projector.
24
Q
in Baddeleys study What were the recall accuracy rates for semantically dissimilar and similar word lists?
A
Semantically dissimilar words were recalled 90% accurately, whereas semantically similar words had a 60% recall accuracy.
25
in baddeleys study What do the results suggest about LTM encoding?
LTM primarily uses semantic encoding.
26
Why is standardisation a strength in Baddeley's study?
It ensures replication and reliability by using a consistent procedure.
27
Why does Baddeley's study lack task validity?
The recall of word sequences doesn’t reflect how LTM is used in real-life social contexts.
28
Why is Baddeley's study considered credible?
Its scientific nature, including improvements to procedure, ensures valid conclusions about memory function.
29
Why might Baddeley's study be considered reductionist?
It simplifies memory into distinct stores (STM and LTM), ignoring their integrated function in real-life scenarios.
30
What is the Working Memory Model?
It is a model of short-term memory where information is temporarily stored and manipulated. It consists of the Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, and (later added) the Episodic Buffer.
31
What is the role of the Central Executive?
It directs attention and coordinates the two slave systems: the Phonological Loop and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad.
32
What are the two components of the Phonological Loop?
The Phonological Store (inner ear) for auditory information.
The Articulatory Loop (inner voice) for rehearsal.
33
What does the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad do?
It handles visual and spatial information, helping track our position relative to the environment.
34
When was the Episodic Buffer added to the WMM and what does it do?
Added in 2000, it integrates auditory, visual, and spatial information, combining them into long-term memory.
35
How does KF's case support the WMM?
KF suffered brain damage that impaired verbal memory but not visual memory, suggesting separate systems for auditory and visual information.
36
What is a limitation of using KF's case to support the WMM?
As a single case, it may not generalise to everyone and could represent only partial damage to one large memory system.
37
What evidence supports the WMM from dual-task experiments?
Baddeley & Hitch (1976) showed participants could perform a visual and verbal task simultaneously but struggled with two visual tasks, suggesting separate slave systems.
38
What did Berz (1995) find that challenges the WMM?
Participants could listen to instrumental music while performing a spoken task, questioning whether interference always occurs with the same slave system.
39
(strength)Why is the WMM considered an improvement over the Multi-Store Model?
It provides a more sophisticated explanation of short-term memory with separate systems and real-life applications (e.g., understanding amnesia).
40
(weakness) Why is the WMM seen as reductionist?
It oversimplifies memory by focusing only on short-term processes and doesn't fully explain encoding into long-term memory.
41
What was the aim of S & HG study?
To track the development of the phonological loop (PL) in children aged 5-17 and determine if its capacity increases with age.
42
What was the sample used in the S&HG study?
570 volunteer children aged 5-17 from public and private schools in Madrid. Children with hearing, reading, or writing difficulties were excluded.
43
What design was used in the S&HG study?
Cross-sectional design with children divided into age categories.
44
How was the digit span task conducted in S&HG study?
A sequence of digits was read aloud (1 digit per second) and repeated by the child. The digit span was determined by the maximum number of correctly recalled digits.
45
in S&HG What did the results show about digit span and age?
Digit span increases with age, with a mean of 3.76 for 5-year-olds and 5.91 for 17-year-olds.
46
in S&HG How does Spanish digit span compare to Anglo-Saxon digit span?
It is 1 digit lower, likely due to word length differences.
47
in S&HG Why is the sample size and diversity a strength?
Including public and private school students makes the findings generalisable to children in Madrid, increasing population validity.
48
What is a weakness of the S&HG sample?
It excludes children from other regions and cultures, limiting generalisability.
49
How does the standardised procedure benefit the S&HG study?
It allows easy replication and increases reliability.
50
in S&HG Why does the digit span task lack task validity?
It doesn't reflect real-life memory use, as children typically use memory for reading, comprehension, and recalling events, not memorising sequences.
51
What is the study's value and application in S&HG study ?
It helps understand PL development with age and can screen for dyslexia in children via digit span tasks.
52
What limits the internal validity of the S&HG study?
Reliance on parents to disclose impairments might have allowed other variables to affect the results.
53
What are the two types of long-term memory suggested by Tulving (1972)?
Episodic memory and semantic memory.
54
How is episodic memory described?
It is autobiographical and encodes information about personal events, like a "mental diary."
55
How is semantic memory described?
It stores facts and knowledge independent of time referencing, like a "mental encyclopaedia.
56
What brain regions are associated with episodic memory?
Frontal lobe and hippocampus.
57
What brain region is associated with semantic memory?
Temporal lobe.
58
How do episodic and semantic memories differ in terms of retrieval?
Episodic memories depend on context cues and are more susceptible to transformation. Semantic memories are less dependent on retrieval cues and more resistant to transformation.
59
How does time referencing differ in episodic and semantic memory?
Episodic memory depends on time referencing, while semantic memory does not.
60
How did Irish et al (2011) support Tulving's explanation?
Alzheimer's patients retained episodic memories (past events) but struggled with semantic memories (facts like medication intake).
61
How did Squire & Zola (1998) challenge Tulving's explanation?
They found that both episodic and semantic memories were equally impaired in amnesia patients, suggesting they may not be separate systems.
62
How does patient KC's case support Tulving's explanation?
KC lost episodic memory (personal events) but retained semantic memory (facts and knowledge).
63
How does patient HM's case challenge Tulving's original explanation?
HM lost the ability to form new episodic and semantic memories but could acquire new procedural skills, leading Tulving to introduce procedural memory in 1985.
64
How has Tulving's explanation been applied to support people with memory loss?
Belleville et al (2006) developed training programs for older adults with episodic memory loss, improving their test performance.
65
Why is Tulving's explanation considered reductionist?
It separates episodic and semantic memory stores, ignoring the possibility of overlap and integrated function.
66
What is the purpose of case studies on brain-damaged patients?
To establish the link between damage to specific brain areas and effects on mental processes, like memory.
67
What approach do case studies use?
The idiographic approach, studying an individual through in-depth, qualitative data collection on behaviors, feelings, and personal experiences.
68
Why is collecting qualitative data a strength of case studies?
It increases the validity of findings compared to relying solely on objective measures of memory.
69
Why do case studies lack generalisability?
The unique nature of brain damage and memory makes it hard to apply findings universally.
70
What does triangulation in case studies involve?
Using multiple research methods, such as observations, interviews, PET scans, and experiments, to compare qualitative and quantitative data.
71
Why is the longitudinal aspect of case studies a strength?
It allows the tracking of an individual’s development over time, providing deeper insights.
72
How does HM’s case support case studies on memory?
HM’s inability to form new LTMs after hippocampus removal helped distinguish procedural and episodic memory, supporting Tulving's LTM theory.
73
What is a weakness of case studies regarding causation?
Other conditions, like HM’s epilepsy, might affect memory, lowering the validity of cause-and-effect conclusions.
74
How are case studies applied in understanding memory?
They help track developmental changes in conditions like Alzheimer’s, aiding the understanding and creation of interventions.
75
Why are case studies less effective in creating universal laws of memory?
Findings may not generalise due to the uniqueness of brain damage and memory.
76
What is reconstructive memory theory?
It is a theory of long-term memory (Bartlett, 1932), stating memories are not exact copies of what we first encoded and stored. Memories are reconstructed by searching through schemas, making sense of new information (effort after meaning), and using rationalisation and confabulation.
77
What evidence supports reconstructive memory theory?
Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" experiment showed participants reconstruct stories using schemas (e.g., changing "canoe" to "boat"), rationalisation, and confabulation.
78
What are the weaknesses of Bartlett’s study?
It lacked standardised procedures, was hard to replicate, and had subjective measurements, reducing scientific credibility.
79
What are schemas?
Schemas are mental frameworks containing stored knowledge based on experiences. They help organise information, influence memory recall, and fill in gaps using previously stored knowledge, expectations, and beliefs.
80
What study provides evidence of schemas influencing memory?
Loftus and Palmer's study found that speed estimates of car crashes varied with the verbs used in questions (e.g., "smashed" led to higher speeds and false memory of broken glass).
81
What are the weaknesses of reconstructive memory theory?
It lacks scientific detail on how memory is reconstructed or where schemas are located, making it less credible compared to other theories like semantic and episodic memory.
82
How has reconstructive memory theory been applied in society?
It contributed to the Devlin Report (1976), which limits the significance of single eyewitness accounts in UK court cases.
83
What criticism is made about Bartlett’s theory?
It oversimplifies memory processes by isolating schemas and ignoring how short-term memory interacts with long-term memory during encoding, making it reductionist.
84
What is dementia, and how does it impact society?
Dementia is a loss of memory, language, and other cognitive skills. In the UK, around 850,000 people have dementia, with women affected at twice the rate of men. Its societal impact includes the growing need for full-time care, often provided by family members, who may struggle to give instructions patients can retain.
85
How can the Working Memory Model help dementia patients?
The model suggests two verbal tasks processed by the phonological loop interfere with each other, reducing performance. Patients should take medication without distractions, like TV noise, so the phonological loop processes one verbal task at a time.
86
What symptoms and implications are linked to dementia?
Symptoms include cognitive changes like memory loss and psychological changes like mood swings. Implications include forgetfulness leading to personal neglect and frustration in family members. Educating families about memory types can help them understand patients' behavior.
87
What does Tulving’s theory say about dementia's impact on memory?
Tulving identified semantic and episodic memory as separate. Dementia damages the temporal lobes affecting semantic memory, making it difficult to recall facts (e.g., where keys are). Memory aids like visual reminders and display boards reduce reliance on LTM.
88
How can carers reduce the emotional and financial strain of dementia care?
Psychologists advise strategies to minimize memory loss effects. Using the MSM, carers can strengthen memory traces via rehearsal, like taking the same route repeatedly, ensuring minimal instructions are given to aid STM storage.
89
What are the progressive effects of dementia on the brain and patient behavior?
Dementia progressively damages the brain's structure and chemistry, impairing memory, reasoning, and communication. Patients become stressed, and psychological changes can lead to anger and anxiety, complicating interactions.
90
How can patients maintain episodic memories despite dementia?
Episodic memories often remain unaffected for a long time. Patients should recall personal events like weddings using diaries and family pictures as reminders, reducing stress and providing comfort.
91
What is processing speed, and how does it relate to memory span?
Processing speed refers to how quickly the brain processes information and can be measured by tasks like reading words in a certain time. It closely correlates with memory span, which is affected by age and individual differences.
92
How does memory span develop with age, according to Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012)?
The capacity of the phonological loop increases with age, peaking at 17 years old, before declining in older adults to resemble the memory span of children.
93
What does Bartlett's reconstructive memory theory say about schemas?
Schemas are mental frameworks influenced by personal experiences, affecting how we perceive, store, and recall information. Individual differences in schemas result in differences in memory.
94
What did Palombo et al. (2012) discover about autobiographical memory?
They found individual differences in autobiographical memory, with high scores in episodic memory correlating with high scores in semantic memory. Men scored higher in spatial memory, and individuals with depression scored lower in episodic and semantic memory.
95
What are the characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease?
Alzheimer’s is a progressive neurological disorder causing memory loss, confusion, and mood changes. It initially impairs memory for new events while older information is preserved, and it affects executive functioning and visuospatial processing.
96
How does Alzheimer’s disease affect memory and cognition?
It impairs short-term and long-term memory, particularly episodic memory, due to damage in brain areas like the hippocampus. It also affects attention and executive functioning, as shown in Baddeley et al.'s (2001) study on attentional tasks.
97
What was the aim of the cognitive practical investigation?
The aim was a partial replication of Glanzer’s experiment to find out whether participants recall more words from the start of the list (using LTM - primacy effect) compared to the middle of the list.
98
What sampling method was used in the cognitive practical, and what were its strengths?
Opportunity sampling was used. Strength: No specific type of person was required, making the sampling quicker and more convenient.
99
What were the weaknesses of the sampling method in cognitive practical ?
Students were selected from the humanities building, excluding those from other subject areas, making findings less generalisable to the target population.
100
How was the procedure of the investigation standardised in cognitive practical ?
Standardised instructions were read aloud, word presentation rate was set at 1 word every 4 seconds, and recall time was fixed at 2 minutes. Extraneous variables such as noise, lighting, and temperature were controlled.
101
Why does the standardised procedure improve reliability in cognitive practical ?
The procedure can be replicated to check consistency, which increases the reliability of findings into the effect of word position on memory recall.
102
Why might the findings of cognitive practical lack ecological validity?
The task of recalling 27 unrelated, 2-syllable words does not reflect real-life memory usage, such as recalling relevant items like those on a shopping list.
103
What conclusions were drawn regarding quantitative data in cognitive practical?
Quantitative data increased the objectivity of findings as it required no personal interpretation, improving validity.
104
What are the limitations of collecting purely quantitative data in cognitive practical?
Quantitative data didn’t provide insight into why certain words were remembered. Personal meaning might have influenced recall, lowering validity.
105
What types of validity and reliability were evaluated in the practical investigation?
Internal validity, ecological validity, population validity, and reliability.
