Cognitive Theories (multi store model, working memory, reconstructive memory, long term memory)

Question 1

Describe the multi store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Answer 1

• computer model- input, processing, output
• Sensory memory- where information from our senses and our environment enters our memory. Information can be lost through decay and is passed to the short term memory
• Short term memory- has a capacity of between 5-9 items and a duration of 20-30 seconds. Information can be lost through displacement
• Long term memory- has a limitless capacity and duration and information can only be lost by decay, interference or by retrieval failure

Question 2

Evaluate the multi store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin in terms of supporting research.

Answer 2

Evidence comes from Glanzar and Cunitz (1966) who found that people recalled more words from the start and end of a word list and fewest from the middle. This provides evidence for the primary and recency effect which supports the idea of a separate short term and long term memory store. It explained that the start of the list made it to long term memory and the end of the list was still in short term memory but the middle of the list got displaced.

Question 3

Evaluate the multi store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin in terms of criticisms of the research.

Answer 3

The research is aboratory based meaning that it lacks ecological validity as the environment and the task are not typical of everyday situations. Therefore the theory is less credible.

On the other hand, because of the highly controlled nature of a lab experiment it is possible to establish a cause and effect relationship. This makes the data much more useful and benefits the theory making it seem more credible/.

Question 4

Evaluate the multi store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin in terms of application.

Answer 4

The theory has application to help those struggling with dementia or other memory problems. By having a better understanding of the process of memory and how something ends up in long term memory, we are able to help people to improve their short term memoryand what we need to do in order to form new long term memories.

Question 5

Evaluate the multi store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin in terms of limitations.

Answer 5

It is limited in its explanation of behaviour as it under emphasises the interaction between the stores. For example, the way information from the long term memory influences what is regarded as important and relevant enough to be paid attention to in sensory imformation.

Question 6

Describe the working memory model (6 key words)

Answer 6

• model of short term memory
• Central executive- monitors and coordinates the operation of the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop and relates them to long term memory. It decides which information is attended to and which part of the working memory to send the information to.
• Phonological loop- deals with spoken and written material and consists of two parts
• Phonological store- the speech basedstorage system that acts as our inner ear
• Articulatory control system- acts as the inner voice and is a verbal rehearsal system
• Visuospatial sketchpad- deals with both visual and spatial information and helps us to negotiate our environment

Question 7

Evaluate the working memory model in terms of supporting research (Baddely 1986)

Answer 7

The existance of separate systems in working memory model has been shown experimentally by the use of duel processing tasks.

If the same componant was used to carry out two tasks simultaneously then performance would be impaired to work on both tasks.

Baddely 1986 asked participants to complete a duel processing task. He found that both tasks were able to be completed simultaneously which provides evidence for the two stores and credibility to the theory.

Question 8

Evaluate the working memory model in terms of supporting research (Seitz and Schumann-Hengsteler 2000).

Answer 8

Seitz and Schumann-Hengsteler (2000) provides support. They conducted an experiment and introduced two interference tasks as a participant tried to solve maths problems. Only speech interfered with the task. This suggests that visual and verbal information is processed separately.

Question 9

Evaluate the working memory model in terms of application.

Answer 9

Practical application to the real world for sufferers of dyslexia. Dyslexia has been found to affect the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. By knowing more about the roles of such systems, teachers can be better informeed about the best ways to assist these students to read or write. Therefore their education can be improved.

Question 10

Evaluate the working memory model in terms of criticisms.

Answer 10

The working memory model is criticised for the combined visual and spatial processing component, the visuospatial sketchpad. This is because blind people have excellent spatial awareness despite having never had any visual information. Therefore it can be argued that this explanation of memory does not separate out visual and spatial information and therefor can’t be applied universally.

Question 11

Evaluate the working memory model in terms of criticisms of the research.

Answer 11

The research method is laboratory based. This means that there is a standardised procedure where control can be taken over extraneous variables. This makes the research reliable and therefore adds credibility to the

Question 12

Describe Tulvings explanations of long term memory.

Answer 12

• Divided in to two memory stores- semantic and episodic memory
• Semantic memory- processes ideas and concepts that are common knowledge e.g. the names of colours, the captials of Countries and basic facts acquired over a lifetime.
• Semantic memory- acoustic encoding of information and retrieval is based on inferences, generalisation and logical thought. It is hard to forget these memories as it is fixed and doesn’t change
• Episodic memory- the recollection of events specific to the individual, autobiographical experiences. They are specific events in time from which we can reconstruct the actual events that took place.
• Episodic memory- encoding relies on temporal links which tell us the ‘when’ and spatial links tells us ‘where’. Prior knowledge is required to access the memories and forgetting occurs due to retrieval cue failure.

Question 13

Evaluate Tulvings explanations of long term memory in terms of supporting research (good)

Answer 13

Brain damaged patients provide good evidence for Tulvings theory. KF was a case study patient who had impairment to long term memory and was unable to recall personal events yet he had a good memory for factual information. This provides highly ecologically valid support for the theory, two separate stores.

Question 14

Evaluate Tulvings explanations of long term memory in terms of supporting research (bad)

Answer 14

However, case studies of brain damaged patients also criticise the theory as HM and Clive Wearing were both able to learn skills. Therefore it was suggested that there might be a third type of memory called procedural memory that was not taken in to consideration.

Question 15

Evaluate Tulvings explanations of long term memory in terms of applications.

Answer 15

Can be applied to an educational setting. Long term memory takes in to consideration the meaningfulness and understanding as being important in the formation of new memories. Therefore teachers would be able to use this theory to help their students to revise. Students will learn better by learning the meaning of the work rather tahn route learning

Question 16

Evaluate Tulvings explanations of long term memory in terms of criticisms of the theory.

Answer 16

The theory can be criticised for being too descriptve. It states imformation about the two types of memory (semantic and episodic) but it doesn’t really explain why or how we make a memory. Therefore the approach is limited in its explanations of long term memory and can even be seen to be reductionist

Question 17

Evaluate Tulvings explanations of long term memory in terms of criticisms of the research.

Answer 17

The research can be criticised as it is very hard to test the two types of long term memory. The two types rely on eachother so a list of words to test semantic memory could also be using episodic memory too. Therefore it is difficult to verify separate stores in experimental evidence which reduces the credibility of the theory.

Question 18

Describe Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory.

Answer 18

• Schema- pre existing knowledge about something which means that you can form a larger picture of the idea. It is gathered whenever you do something for the first time and elements of the situation are stored so you can refer back to it.
• Distortion- ways that our mind convinces us of something that isn’t really true. It is often a mix up of similar memories
• Rationalisation- we use this in order to make sense of something unfamiliar by changing the order of events or specific details of the situation
• Transformation- when details are unconsciously changed to fit the norms of our own society and mirror what we expect to hear or see.
• Simplification- a natural response of shortening the unfamiliar recollection in order to make it easier to remember.

Question 19

Evaluate reconstructive memory in terms of supporting research (Bartlett 1932)

Answer 19

There is support from Bartlett (1932). The participants had to recall a story called the ‘War of Ghosts’. The more times the story was retold, the shorter, more coherent, more conventional and more cliched the story became. This provides evidence for memory being reconstructive and for the idea of simplification and transformation.

Question 20

Evaluate reconstructive memory in terms of supporting research (Allport and Postman 1947)

Answer 20

Further support is from Allport and Postman (1947). The participants were asked to recall details of a picture of two characters, one of which was holding a razor. The participants reported inaccurate details about who was holding the razor. This shows that memory is an active process and can be changed to fit in with what we expect to happen based on our own knowledge and understanding of society.

Question 21

Evaluate reconstructive memory in terms of applications.

Answer 21

The theory has impacted on UK legal systems. It can explain why eyewitnesses make errors when reporting crimes as they fill in gaps in their knowledge using schemas which can make the memories innacurate. This has led to the the Devlin Report being introduced which states that prosecution cannot be on the basis of a single eye witness.

Question 22

Evaluate reconstructive memory in terms of criticisms of the theory.

Answer 22

Bartlett has been acused of over emphasising the inaccuracy of memory and using unfamiliar material to support his theory.

Yulle and Cutshall found that even after five months, witnesses remembered the account of a real life robbery. Therefore it can be seen that even complex, real life events, can be accurately recalled.

Question 23

Evaluate reconstructive memory in terms of criticisms of the research.

Answer 23

The ‘War of Ghosts’ story was used to formulate the reconstructive theory of memory. This has been argued to reduce the validity of the theory. One problem is the use of folk tales because they are written in an unusual style and so may not actually represent everyday memory. this means that the theory is lacking in mundane realism.

Lots of the research that has been conducted was done in a laboratory. This may make the research lacking in ecological validity. The methodology in ‘War of Ghosts’ was not rigorously controlled and there were no standardised instructions. This means that the results were less valid. The way that the results were used to shape the theory reduces the credibility of the theory and makes it biased.