College 4

Question 1

What do you need to know in order to understand persuasion?

Answer 1

• Who says What?
• In what Channel?
• To Whom?
• And with what effect?

Who (speaker) + What (message) + Channel (medium) + Whom (audience or listener) = Effect

Question 2

What are the three theories of persuasion?

Answer 2

1. McGuire’s information processing model
2. Cognitive response model
3. Dual process models

The first two models are relevant to advertising for history of theorizing; to see where different elements in current theories come from.

Question 3

McGuire’s information processing model.

Answer 3

This looks very similar to the DAGMAR model.

The idea is that people go through different stages when they process a message.

Exposure/presentation => attention/awareness => comprehension/understanding => acceptance => retention => action (eacara)!

This goes from easiest to hardest.

Persuasion attempts can have different effects at different stages.

Question 4

What are the assumptions of McGuire’s information processing model? And are these still true?

Answer 4

Hierarchical model:
- People must go through each of the steps before behavior change occurs.
- However, skipping steps is also possible.

Systematic processing is required.
- However, persuasion can occur without systematic processing. We also see effects with superficial processing.

Learning of the message is essential for persuasion.
- However, little scientific support for this assumption.

Question 5

Is McGuire’s information processing model still used?

Answer 5

Yes, even though this theory is criticized, people still use this a lot.

Question 6

Cognitive response model

Answer 6

In contrast with the McGuire model, the receiver is active in the cognitive response model.
- So there is more going on than passive acceptance.
- Thoughts are also important for persuasion.

The receiver relates message with existing information.
- Mainly favorable thoughts about message => intended change.
- Mainly unfavorable thoughts about message => unintended change/ no change.

The most important product of this model is the thought listing technique.

Question 7

The thought listing technique

Answer 7

1. You ask people to list all the thoughts they had during the message presentation.
2. You categorize relevant thoughts as favorable/unfavorable.
3. You create index. Based on that you can have an idea about the attitude towards the advertisement.

Question 8

How does the strength of arguments influence the cognitive response model?

Answer 8

Strong arguments => favorable thoughts => intended change.

Weak arguments => unfavorable thoughts => unintended change/no change.

However:
- Effects of argument strength on thoughts disappear when distracted (i.e., systematic processing required).
- People often do not think about advertising as deeply as this model suggests.

Question 9

Dual process models

Answer 9

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Heuristic Systematic Model (HSM)

These are different but we will treat them as equal.

Question 10

What do ELM and HSM have in common?

Answer 10

Information is being processed systematically or superficially.

Different words for the same processing logic:
- Central/systematic
- Peripheral/heuristic

Processing more depends on: ability and motivation.

Question 11

How can a dual processing model have influence on ads?

Answer 11

You have to differentiate between the heuristic cues (e.g., celebrity) and systematic cues (strong arguments).

Depending on the processing you will be influenced more by the one or the other. It can also be a combination of both.

Some message cues can be seen as an argument or as a heuristic.

Question 12

What predicts ability?

Answer 12

1. Knowledge:
   - If you have more knowledge, you can think about it more carefully. You can also process it more deeply.
2. Distraction/time pressure
   - The more distracted you are, the more time pressure you feel and the more you will go for it.
3. Repetition
   - The more often you see an ad, the higher the chances are that you process the message correctly.

Question 13

Knowledge in the role of processing ability

Answer 13

Knowledge: better able to process a message systematically.

Question 14

Wood et al. (1985) on knowledge in the role of processing ability

Answer 14

Counter-attitudinal message against preservation of environment.

• 3 groups based on the knowledge of students (based on pretest).
• Strong arguments vs. long argument (i.e., systematic vs. heuristic cue)

Effects on attitudes:
- Argument strength more effect on most knowledgeable students.
- Argument length more effect on least knowledgeable students.

Question 15

Distraction/time pressure in the role of processing ability

Answer 15

When you are under a lot of time pressure => more likely to process with heuristics, because you don’t have the time to evaluate all the messages. You will go for a low processing intensity.

Low processing intensity => more likely to use heuristics.

Important for advertisement because of multitasking: less attention for ads => more likely heuristic processing.

But is a second screen always a bad thing?

Question 16

Repetition in the role of processing ability

Answer 16

It’s a wise strategy in the beginning.

More repetition => more ability to process.

However, too much repetition can result in wear out/irritation. Particularly with more systematic processing.

Possible solution: variation in advertising
- Different lay-out
- Different message content

Question 17

What can influence motivation?

Answer 17

Individual differences in processing motivation.
- Some people have a need for cognition
- Some people have a need to closure (they just want a conclusion)

Motivation is greater when something is seen as personally relevant.
- When something relates to values, goals and needs.
- When people are prone to considerable risk => Fear appeals

Question 18

Experiment by Petty et al. (1983) on the role of personal relevance and strong or weak arguments

Answer 18

They devided the participants into two groups:
- High personal relevance
- Low personal relevance

It was about a razor.

The participants heard either a strong or weak argument. Then they put the razor with either a famous or non-famous endorser.

Most positive attitude towards razor:
- High personal relevance => strong arguments
- Low personal relevance => famous endorser

Question 19

Fear appeals

Answer 19

You can create a problem to induce fear. E.g., if you have a bad breath you will never be a bride.

The idea is that you will buy the product so can overcome the feeling of fear.

Now more often used in health campaigns than commercial advertising.

Question 20

Experiment by Cartocci et al. (2019) on a neuroscientific application of fear appeals

Answer 20

They measured two EEG indexes of these two ads:
- Mental engagement index (ME): effort during a vigilant task.
- Approach/withdrawal index (AW): positive (vs. negative) motivation to approach (vs. withdraw) a specific object.

Results suggested that the ME and the AW presented an opposite trend:
- Smokers showed higher ME and more negative emotions (AW) than nonsmokers.

Question 21

When are fear appeals effective, in terms of attention and motivation?

Answer 21

Fear appeals attract attention
- If personally relevant, people might become fearful.

Idea of fear appeal: people will be motivated to reduce fear
- e.g., by changing their behavior (the ultimate goal).

Motivation to process message determined by
- Personal vulnerability and perceived severity.
- Severe threat is unpleasant: results in defensive processing (e.g., search inconsistencies as “way out”).
- However, if arguments are strong: hard to minimize threat and more motivated to process the recommended action.

Question 22

What are the two assumptions of the effectiveness of fear appeals?

Answer 22

The message has a recommended action.

People feel/are capable of engaging in (recommended) action.

Question 23

So, are fear appeals effective?

Answer 23

Yes, but
- Not all messages have a clear recommended action.
- And even more relevant: people do not always feel able to engage in action.
- Key concept = self-efficacy

Question 24

Self-efficacy

Answer 24

One’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

Question 25

How can self-efficacy influence the effectiveness of fear appeal?

Answer 25

High self-efficacy (I can do it)
- Behavior change might be an option.
- This could be a way to cope with fear.

Low self-efficacy (I cannot do it)
- Behavior change is less likely to be perceived as an option.
- They regulate the fear with other strategies (e.g., denial).

Implication: effectiveness of fear appeals is unlikely for people with low self-efficacy.

Question 26

When are fear appeals most likely effective?

Answer 26

When the message is personally relevant.

When the message has informational value
- E.g., to inform people about risks.

When people have high self-efficacy
- Ad can also provide a way to deal with the problem to give people high self-efficacy.

Question 27

When are other strategies than fear appeal especially more effective?

Answer 27

When the self-efficacy is low.

Question 28

When and how can fear appeals backfire?

Answer 28

Low self-efficacy: regulate the fear rather than processing the message.

Question 29

What are problems for advertisers?

Answer 29

People do not (want to) pay attention to commercial messages.

People resist being persuaded (i.e., counter argue or reactance).

Question 30

How can you overcome the two problems for advertisers?

Answer 30

Attract attention:
- Humor
- Sexual content.

Lower resistance:
- Two-sided ads
- Native advertisement
- Product placement
- Sponsorship

Question 31

How often is humor used in ads? En what ads is it most often used in?

Answer 31

About 30-42% of ads employ humor.

It is mostly used in non-durable long involvement products (snacks, soft drinks and beer).

Question 32

What do humor appeals do?

Answer 32

Increase attention for the ad (people enjoy it).

Increase positive affect.

Increase message liking.

But it does NOT consistently predict behavior.

Question 33

Why does humor not consistently predict behavior?

Answer 33

Humor appeals distract from the message (i.e., the non-humorous parts).
- This can reduce counter arguing (good news for advertisers).
- But also reduces recall of brand or product. Especially when humor is not related to brand/product.

Thus, important: related vs. unrelated humor.

Question 34

Related vs. unrelated humor

Answer 34

Related: the humor relates directly to the product
- E.g., screaming child in supermarket => product: condoms.

Unrelated: the humor is not related to the product.

Question 35

Experiment by Strick et al. (2009) about if humor appeals can influence product choices.

Answer 35

Despite lower brand recall, can humor still influence product choice by influencing implicit attitudes?

She showed a humorous or non-humorous picture and then measured the implicit attitude using affective priming (IAT). Then she asked which product they preferred from a list of products.

Dependent measures:
- Implicit attitudes (affective priming task)
- Explicit brand recognition (memory task)
- Product choice (from different options)

More positive implicit brand attitudes => lower explicit brand recognition => higher product choice.

Question 36

Humor paradox

Answer 36

Consumers forget the brand, but still want to have it (mediated by positive associations).

Particularly for low involvement products (not much deliberation), probably more likely with brands that are not too familiar.

Question 37

Humor summary

Answer 37

Humor appeals can have desirable (affect transfer) and undesirable effects (brand recall).

Relevance of humor seems to be key.

Question 38

Sexual content in advertising

Answer 38

Sexual suggestiveness (themes or physical contact).
Nudity or partial nudity.

Can be direct and also more indirect (e.g., hand break in car = erect penis)

Question 39

In what parts of advertising is sexual content used the most?

Answer 39

Advertising for health care, beauty, medicine, clothing, travel, and entertainment.

Question 40

What is a perk of sexual content in advertising?

Answer 40

Known to attract attention (reduce avoidance).

Question 41

True or false: sexual content can be used for every brand.

Answer 41

False, sexual content should be relevant to the product/brand.

Relevant example: shower gel => people showering (naked of course).

Irrelevant example: girl with open mouth next to seven inch burger by the Burger King.

Question 42

Effects of sex appeals, meta-analyses by Wirtz et al. (2018)

Answer 42

Increases ad recall (attention effect)
- Particularly when relevant.

But brand recognition/ recall can be impaired
- Particularly when irrelevant; attention to sexual content, not the brand.

Ad attitude moderated by gender:
- Women are more negative about sexual content in ads.
- Men are more positive about sexual content in ads; but this did not extend to brand attitude.

No effect on brand attitude and purchase intentions
- When irrelevant, even slight negative effect on purchase intentions.

Question 43

Does sex sell?

Answer 43

Sex appeals can have desirable (attention) and undesirable effects (brand recall).
- Relevance of sexual content is important.
- Historical context probably also matters (zeitgeist). Brands got a lot of critique for explicit sexual content, brands use less sexual content nowadays.
- More research needed for complete idea about effects (e.g., implicit measures).

Question 44

What do all strategies to lower resistance have in common?

Answer 44

A common factor: make persuasion less explicit

Question 45

Two-sided advertisements

Answer 45

You say something good and something bad about the product.

Two-sided ads (or “honest” ads)
- Stand out and reduce counter arguing.
- Are viewed as more credible.
- Positive arguments become more effective.

BUT
- It is important to not give too much negative info (2/5).
- Important attributes should not be criticized

Question 46

Jeans study by Pizzutti et al. (2016)

Answer 46

Salesperson emphasized need of ironing (trivial) vs. lack of comfort (important) vs. no two-sided argument (control).

Two-sided salesperson more trustworthy, but important negative argument lowered purchase intention (trivial did not).

Question 47

Native advertising

Answer 47

In-feed native ads

Advertisement embedded in editorial content
- Same visual design; looks like an article.
- Sponsored content.
- Not removed by ad blockers.
- Less intrusive than banner ads.

Lower resistance?
- Possible if people don’t realize that is in an ad.
- But it can backfire: reactance or irritation when realizing the persuasion attempt.

Question 48

Product placement

Answer 48

The paid inclusion of branded products or brands through audio/visual means, within mass media programming.

Relevant strategy in the context of channel switching and other situations in which traditional forms of advertising are seen less (e.g., online streaming).

Sometimes brands are part of the story.

Question 49

Product placement as a message strategy

Answer 49

Product placement
- Can lead to positive attitudes (particularly when used by likeable characters).
- Can result in implicit memory for product and explicit memory when part of the story.
- Attitudes and memory can influence behavior.

BUT it can backfire
- E.g., when TV-character is unlikable.
- E.g., when placement is too obvious.

Question 50

Warnings about product placement

Answer 50

To protect the consumer they can place warnings about product placement.

Logo or “This program contains product placement”

Effective as a warning? When only logo; very few people seem to look at it, but if warning is seen:
- More attention to content; increased brand memory.
- May trigger persuasion knowledge.
- Slight negative effect on brand attitudes.

Question 51

Sponsorship as message strategy

Answer 51

It can be defined as a technique by which a commercial organization financially supports an entity in order to associate the organization name with this entity in the media and use entity for advertising purpose.

Question 52

Message strategies to address low attention and resistance to persuasion

Answer 52

Humor and sexual content to attract attention.

Two-sided ads, native advertisement, product placement and sponsorship to lower resistance.

All have (dis)advantages for the advertiser, so should be used after careful consideration of product, ad, processing, and target group (i.e., relevance of advertising strategy).