Colonial Policy and Administration

Question 1

What is a dyarchy?

Answer 1

A system of rule where power is divided between two centres of authority.

Question 2

What was British colonial policy concerned with 1919-47 (2)?

Answer 2

The maintenance of Empire and resisting growing nationalism.

Question 3

Who was the Viceroy, and who was the Secretary of State for India, at the time of the Government of India Act 1919?

Answer 3

1) Viceroy: Lord Chelmsford.
2) Secretary of State for India: Edwin Montague.

Question 4

What were the 3 main features of the Government of India Act 1919?

Answer 4

1) The Viceroy retained control over major areas (e.g. defence, foreign affairs), and his council remained purely appointed, but they had to defend its actions before the Legislative Council.
2) The Legislative Council was split into the Legislative Assembly/lower house (104/144 elected members) and the Council of State/upper house (34/60 elected members).
3) Provincial councils, run by elected Indian ministers, took responsibility over local government, health, education, and agriculture.

Question 5

What did the British hope to achieve through the Government of India Act 1919?

Answer 5

Britain hoped that the Government of India Act 1919 would weaken support for the critics of British rule in the Indian congress, by taking the first step towards Dominion self-government.

Question 6

When was the Simon Commission published?

Answer 6

1930

Question 7

What was the Simon Commission 1929-30, and what did it recommend (3)?

Answer 7

It reviewed the Government of India Act 1919, recommending:
1) The creation of a federal system of government across India, incorporating both the provinces (under direct British rule) and the Princely States.
2) Provinces to be given more power.
3) The Viceroy should remain in control over defence, internal security and foreign affairs, to ensure overall British control.

Question 8

What is a round table conference?

Answer 8

A meeting between all parties interested in a controversial question, aiming to find a commonly agreed way forward.

Question 9

When were the two London Round Table Conferences?

Answer 9

1930 and 1931.

Question 10

What was the significance of the Round Table Conferences 1930, 1931?

Answer 10

Britain rejected self-governing Dominion status over concerns over India’s strategic and economic importance to the Empire, as well as over prejudice about non-white leaders and peoples.

Question 11

What did the Government of India Act 1935 do (2)?

Answer 11

It created a Federation of India by:
1) Making provinces completely self-governing (provincial governors were still appointed by the British, and the Viceroy could suspend self-government in emergencies).
2) Expanding the franchise from 7 to 35 million people.

Question 12

Why did the Congress Party oppose the Government of India Act 1935 (2)?

Answer 12

1) It fell short of the independence enjoyed by the Dominions.
2) They desired full independence from British rule.

Question 13

Why did the Princely States reject a federal India in 1935?

Answer 13

They wanted to maintain independence from the rest of India.

Question 14

What was the Indian reaction to the outbreak of WW2 in 1939, and how did Britain react?

Answer 14

Congress-controlled ministry members in the provincial regions resigned from office, in order to oppose Indian participation in WW2. The British imposed direct rule, using severe repression against independence protests.

Question 15

When did India gain independence, and what was it split into?

Answer 15

India became independent in 1947, becoming 2 separate states: India and Pakistan.

Question 16

What were the 2 categories of Britain’s African colonies 1919-39 (give examples)?

Answer 16

1) Colonies ruled indirectly by Britain through existing local rulers. E.g. most West African colonies, Uganda, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, as well as League of Nations mandates like Tanganyika, Cameroon, Togoland, and South West Africa.
2) White settler colonies, where the British ruled directly through officials, with political representation for whites only. E.g. Southern Rhodesia, Kenya, and the Union of South Africa.

Question 17

What was British colonial policy geared towards for African colonies under indirect British rule/mandates (1) 1919-39, and why (3)?

Answer 17

British colonial policy was focused on the promotion of the social and economic development of colonies under indirect rule/mandates. This was because:
1) To improve the living standards of the local populations.
2) To increase the economic value of the colonies to Britain.
3) To consolidate the Empire in the face of post-war independence movements.

Question 18

What are 4 examples of British investment in the social/economic development in Africa 1919-39?

Answer 18

1) In Sudan in 1920, Britain allocated £3 million for the Gezira Cotton Scheme to increase cotton production, although this compromised a major dam building and irrigation project.
2) In East Africa in 1925, the British allocated £10 million for improving rail and dock facilities.
3) Investment in schools/education facilities in West Africa.
4) Numerous agricultural research stations set up across Africa.

Question 19

What was the Colonial Development Act 1929?

Answer 19

It designated £1 million of British Treasury funds for development projects across the Empire.

Question 20

What were two limitations to Britain’s development initiatives in Africa 1919-39?

Answer 20

1) All African colonies were expected to be self-financing, with major projects being mainly funded by taxes collected locally from African workers.
2) The global economic impact of the Great Depression.

Question 21

Explain the main reason for the growth of nationalism amongst the Kikuyu in Kenya in 1920 (4 stages).

Answer 21

1) In 1920, white settlers in Kenya put pressure on Britain to give Kenya a degree of self-government.
2) Britain granted power to the 20-30,000 strong white settlers, who dominated the Legislative Council, and excluded the Indian settlers and the Kikuyu peoples from the fertile Northern Highlands, a Kikuyu traditional homeland.
3) White settler farmers in the Northern Highlands became rich through the growth of tea and coffee, and squeezed out the Kikuyu through heavy taxation, and by banning them from growing commercial products.
4) Many were forced into the wage economics of major cities, such as Mombasa and Nairobi.

Question 22

What was the Devonshire Declaration in 1923, and what was its significance?

Answer 22

Following growing African independence movements, the Devonshire Declaration stressed the interests of black Africans had to be respected. However, despite efforts to improve African agriculture and education, discriminatory legislation continued to build momentum.

Question 23

How did the white minority dominate the Union of South Africa 1919-39 (3)?

Answer 23

1) Promises built to protect the rights of ethnic minorities granted in the Dominion status of 1910 had been eroded.
2) The white minority established control over South Africa’s internal affairs in the 1930s.
3) The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted the Dominions legislative autonomy, allowing for the white dominance to continue.

Question 24

How did the white minority dominate Southern Rhodesia?

Answer 24

The white population took political power, and in 1923, Southern Rhodesia was annexed to the Crown, becoming self-governing, allowing for white domination.

Question 25

What was the aim of the British colonial administration in Palestine 1919-39 (2)?

Answer 25

1) To ensure Palestine’s strategic importance as a buffer against threats to the Suez Canal was maintained.
2) Internal stability of the country was maintained.

Question 26

What is the Jewish National Fund?

Answer 26

An international organisation (est. 1901 in Switzerland), with the role of buying land in Palestine for Jewish settlement. It played a major role in Jewish acquisition of land in Palestine in the interwar years.

Question 27

Who was Herbert Samuel?

Answer 27

The British-appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, leading a civil government 1920-25.

Question 28

What were 4 reasons for Britain’s failure to maintain internal stability in Palestine 1919-29?

Answer 28

1) Religious/ethnic tensions.
2) Disagreements between British government (pro-Jewish) and the British authorities in Palestine (pro-Arab).
3) Arab discontent over growing Jewish immigration.
4) Arab discontent over increased Jewish landholding.

Question 29

What was the Buraq Uprising/Palestine riots of 1929 (2)?

Answer 29

1) Arab building works next to the Wailing Wall (religious holy shrine to both religions) were obstructing access.
2) The Jews accused this as deliberate, resulting in riots in August 1929, with several hundred deaths on each side.

Question 30

Why was there tensions over landholding in Palestine, and was it resolved (1919-31)?

Answer 30

1) Most Palestinian Arabs were poor farmers, renting land from absent landowners. Wealthier Jewish settlers began to buy up land (often with the aid of the Jewish National Fund), leading to many Arabs being evicted from their farms, causing great discontent.
2) An enquiry in 1929 called for the curbing of Jewish land acquisition, and another in 1931 recommending restrictions. However, pro-Jewish feeling in Britain and the USA forced the government to back down.

Question 31

Why did Jewish immigration into Palestine accelerate from 1933?

Answer 31

Increased Nazi persecution of Jews, following Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor of Germany in 1933.

Question 32

Explain the course of British actions in Palestine (1936-39) (5)?

Answer 32

1) In 1936, Britain sent 20,000 troops to Palestine to deal with Arab insurgency and attacks on Jews.
2) In 1937, the Peel Report recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab areas, with Britain maintaining control over Jerusalem and some other holy places. This was opposed by the Arab population.
3) 1937-39: Britain adopted a policy of repression to deal with rising violence: 25,000 troops sent to Palestine, with 9000 Arabs arrested and 100 hanged.
4) 1939: Fearing an Italian attack on Egypt and with war imminent, Britain stated those Jews currently living in Palestine would enjoy the right to a ‘national homeland’.
5) 1939: Jewish immigration restricted to 15,000 per year for 5 years.

Question 33

What was the Peel Report 1937?

Answer 33

A report recommending the partition of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish areas, with Britain maintaining control over a few holy areas, such as Jerusalem.

Question 34

What was Jewish immigration into Palestine restricted to in 1939, and what was the significance (3)?

Answer 34

Restricted to 15,000 a year.
1) Jewish organisations were forced to accept the British position, under pressure from Nazi aggression in Europe.
2) Britain entered WW2 knowing that Jews were outraged, and Arabs unsatisfied, but knew it would lead to temporary stability.
3) Britain’s plan was to declare Palestine as independent in 1949, with Jewish immigration restrictions designed to ensure an Arab majority.

Question 35

What was the aim of British administration in Mesopotamia (Iraq)?

Answer 35

To manage internal conflicts, and develop the country.

Question 36

What was the 1920 Iraqi Revolt (2)?

Answer 36

1) Muslim demonstrations against Britain in Baghdad turned into a full-scale revolt. The Kurds, in the north, wanting independence from Iraq rebelled as well.
2) Britain intervened militarily, mainly through air power. Around 9,000 individuals were killed.

Question 37

What was the significance of the Cairo Conference of 1921 for Mesopotamia (2)?

Answer 37

1) Britain allowed for some local self-government.
2) Britain retained full control of military and foreign affairs.

Question 38

What was the significance of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 1922 (3)?

Answer 38

1) Faisal I was confirmed as King, and had good relations with the British.
2) Senior British advisors were appointed to most government positions to ensure British control over Iraqi affairs.
3) Britain kept control over major military bases and influence over the Iraqi Army, which it trained.

Question 39

What was the significance of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 1930?

Answer 39

It promised full consultation between both nations on matters of foreign policy - a large step towards full independence.

Question 40

When did Iraq gain full independence, and what influence did Britain retain in the area?

Answer 40

1932. Britain retained both military influence, as well as economic influence (especially control over the oil industry).

Question 41

What is the Commonwealth?

Answer 41

An association consisting of the UK and other states that were previously part of the British Empire.

Question 42

Why did Britain grow concerned over their control over the Dominions after WW1 (3)?

Answer 42

1) The important role of the Dominions in WW1 led to aspirations of control over their own affairs.
2) Canada and South Africa held strong feelings of independence.
3) After the bitterness of the Second Anglo-Boer War, Britain worried that South Africa may be tempted to desert Britain altogether.

Question 43

What was the British aim of a Commonwealth, and when was the idea given substance?

Answer 43

1) It would allow for colonies to gradually become independent, but still retain an economic and political relationship with Britain through international institutions and loyalty to the monarch.
2) This idea gained traction following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a result of a meeting between British and Dominion Prime Ministers at an Imperial Conference.

Question 44

What did the Statute of Westminster 1931 recognise (3)?

Answer 44

1) Certain Dominions should become independent nations.
2) Laws passed in Britain could not be enforced in these countries without their own parliamentary permission.
3) Dominion countries were to be free to pass their own laws without British interference or approval.

Question 45

What was the significance of the Statute of Westminster 1931 and the idea of the Commonwealth to Britain (3)?

Answer 45

1) The Act came into immediate effect in Canada, South Africa and the Irish Free State, later in Australia in 1942, and New Zealand in 1947.
2) British politicians and media portrayed it as an act of civilised nature from the British Empire.
3) It ensured British global influence, without the heavy costs of imperial rule.

Question 46

What is meant by geopolitical?

Answer 46

The effects of geography on the politics of a nation.

Question 47

What were Britain’s 3 problems in regards to imperial defence 1930-38?

Answer 47

1) The cost of imperial defence became a greater burden after WW1 and the Great Depression.
2) New aggressive regimes of Imperial Japan in Asia, Fascist Italy in Africa, and Nazi Germany in Europe posed threats to the Empire, and Britain itself.
3) The rise in nationalist independence movements, especially in India, made the need for military resources more urgent.

Question 48

What was Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement?

Answer 48

Britain diffused tensions with Germany and Italy by allowing their territorial demands.

Question 49

Why did Britain adopt a policy of appeasement in Europe (3)?

Answer 49

1) In order for the strengthening of British forces in Asia, in preparation for a Japanese attack. Britain spent £25 million on modernising the Indian Army and building Singapore as a formidable naval base to deter Japan.
2) Britain believed that Hitler and Mussolini were reasonable politicians who could be satisfied with such territorial concessions.
3) In order to prevent another major European war.

Question 50

When and why did Britain declare war on Germany, starting WW2?

Answer 50

September 1939, following the German invasion of Poland.

Question 51

When was the Japanese attack on Singapore?

Answer 51

1942.

Question 52

How did Britain fail in its imperial defence policy 1939-42 (2)?

Answer 52

Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement failed, as he underestimated the scale of ambition of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Fighting in Europe and Africa, Britain was too overstretched to reinforce Singapore adequately, and it fell to Japan.