Imperial and Colonial Policy 1890-1914

Question 1

Who were the Viceroys of India 1888 - 1916 (5)?

Answer 1

1) Marquess of Lansdowne 1888-94.
2) Earl of Elgin 1894-99.
3) Viceroy Curzon 1899-1905.
4) Earl of Minto 1905-10.
5) Lord Hardinge 1910-16.

Question 2

What was the 3 main roles of British officials in India?

Answer 2

1) Ensure the regime remained secure.
2) Ensure the Indians remained content.
3) Ensure India remained profitable to Britain.

Question 3

Why was the administrative elite in India very small, and what was the significance of this to British rule in India?

Answer 3

Often there were no more than 3-4 officers per district, due to the high cost of pay and the pensions of the civil service. This was significant, as it meant that, increasingly so with modernisation, Indian participation was required.

Question 4

How did the Indian Civil Service encourage Indian collaboration and enable more British intervention in (C1890 - 1914) (3)?

Answer 4

1) Through a policy of divide and rule, they emphasised the divisions in India (race, religion, caste, region, occupation, etc.), before asserting Britain’s moral authority to bring enlightened reform to India.
2) Allowed a degree of Indian representation on provincial councils in reforms in 1892, and 1909.
3) These reforms were managed in a way which preserved British influence, and exploited divisions in education in India. This created an Anglo-Indian administrative elite.

Question 5

Who were the main critics of the British Raj C1890 - 1914, and what did they criticise about it (2)?

Answer 5

1) The professional middle-class, represented by the Indian National Congress (est. 1885), criticised trading agreements, heavy taxation and restraints on industry.
2) Social/humanitarian groups (e.g. The Servants of Indian Society) wanted reform of old restrictive laws and practices.

Question 6

What beneficial reforms were made by Viceroy Curzon (1899-1905) (10)?

Answer 6

1) Improved efficiency in the civil service through reform.
2) Founded the Indian Cadet Corps in 1901 to appease Indian princes and elite figures with military training and officer commissions.
3) University reform.
4) Police reform.
5) Lowering of taxes.
6) Adoption of the gold standard to maintain a stable currency.
7) Preservation of ancient monuments, e.g. the Taj Mahal.
8) Railway expansion.
9) Irrigation schemes.
10) Establishment of a Commerce and Industry Department and an Agricultural Department.

Question 7

What negative decisions were made by Viceroy Curzon (1899-1905) (2)?

Answer 7

1) When famine struck in 1899 - 1902, Curzon refused to give aid, insisting starving villagers needed to develop ‘self reliance’.
2) The partition of Bengal in 1905, resulting in widespread resistance.

Question 8

How did Curzon defend India against the perceived ambitions of Russia (2)?

Answer 8

1) The creation of the North-West Frontier Province (1901), merging the Punjab with the Pashtun lands to protect the border from a potential Russian invasion.
2) Invasion of Tibet 1903-4, to counter Russia’s perceived ambitions in and around the area.

Question 9

Explain the events (5) of the partition of Bengal.

Answer 9

1) In July 1905, Curzon decided he wanted to partition Benghal into East Bengal and Assam (Muslim majority), and West Bengal (Hindu majority). This was carried out in October 1905.
2) Caused huge uproar amongst the Hindu elite of West Bengal, with many leasing land to Muslims in East Bengal.
3) Hindus saw the partition as revenge for criticising British rule. There were strikes, boycotts of British goods and protests (Swadeshi movement 1905-11).
4) A new strand of nationalism began to emerge, led by Surendranath Banerjee, 2x president of the INC. Curzon attempted to counter this by imposing strict censorship on the press.
5) This split the INC between the extremists and the moderates, and helped bring about Curzon’s resignation in 1905.

Question 10

Who introduced the Morley-Minto reforms, and when?

Answer 10

Viceroy Minto and John Morley, Secretary of State for India, introduced limited reforms in 1909 in an attempt to appease the Bengalis.

Question 11

What was the Indian Councils Act of 1909, and what was the significance to India (2)?

Answer 11

Enabled 27 Indians to be elected from the provincial constituencies to the Viceroy’s Council, advising the Viceroy and assisting in law making.
1) This increased Indian participation in government, although some representatives were still chosen by the British.
2) Further reform in 1910 enabled 135 more Indians to secure seats in provincial councils.

Question 12

When did George V visit India, and what was the significance (3)?

Answer 12

1) George V was the first and only monarch to visit the Raj in 1911, crowned Emperor of India and given a celebratory durbar. This aimed to secure the loyalty of Indian princes.
2) Viceroy Hardinge used it as an opportunity to reunite Bengal in 1911.
3) Hardinge moved the capital away from Calcutta to Delhi, a Muslim stronghold, to undermine revolutionary Hindu groups. George V laid the foundation stone of New Delhi.

Question 13

What was the Indian reaction to the British declaration of War on their behalf in August 1914, and how many Indians served in WW1?

Answer 13

Although Viceroy Hardinge declared War on India’s behalf in August 1914, without consulting the elcted representatives or the India population, India supported and accepted the decision. 1.3 million Indians served in WW1.

Question 14

What is the Aswan Dam?

Answer 14

A dam opened in Egypt in 1902, costing £2 million, enabling half of million acres of former desert to be irrigated.

Question 15

When was Egypt declared a formal protectorate?

Answer 15

1914.

Question 16

What were the hinderances to British freedom of action in Egypt (4)?

Answer 16

1) Whilst Egypt was a veiled protectorate, Egypt still belonged to Turkey, with the Sultan the Khedive’s overlord.
2) The Capitulations (regulations granted by the Sultan to protect Europeans from Muslim laws against Christians). This slowed down law making.
3) The Caisse de la Dette (including France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy and Britain), controlled Egypt’s finances. Half of Egypt’s revenue went to European bond holders, who could prevent the Consul-General from spending money on matters they disapproved of.
4) The Mixed Courts were presided over by both European and Egyptian judges, who were not always supportive of the British.

Question 17

How did Britain resolve the issue of the Caisse de la Dette in Egypt (1898-1904)?

Answer 17

After the Fashoda Incident of 1898, Britain and France grew closer, signing an Entente Cordiale in 1904. This recognised Britain’s rights in Egypt in return for British recognition of the French take-over of Morocco. With this, the Caisse de la Dette ceased to control Egyptian finances, becoming a debt-collection agency for foreign bondholders.

Question 18

What was the structure of British government in Egypt (1883-1907) (3)?

Answer 18

1) Evelyn Baring (Consul-General) acted as an ‘adviser’ to the Khedive.
2) Egypt had a partially elected parliament, with an Advisory Council of Laws and a General Assembly.
3) All Egyptian government ministers had the ‘support’ of a British adviser, and if they resisted British advice or interference, they could be dismissed.

Question 19

How many Britons were working in government in Egypt in 1885 compared to 1905?

Answer 19

1885: Around 100.
1905: Over 1000.

Question 20

How did Evelyn Baring improve the Egyptian economy (5)?

Answer 20

1) Khedive Isma’il Pasha had a debt of over £70 million, Baring made cutbacks to the military and bureaucracy in order to balance the books.
2) He improved communications and invested in irrigation schemes.
3) He improved working conditions for labourers, and introduced better health ad sanitation services in towns, boosting productivity.
4) Within 10 years, cotton and sugar exports had trebled, and the population had risen from 7 mil to 10 mil.
5) Oversaw the massive expansion in the tourist industry, becoming a popular destination for Britons in the winter. Thomas Cook & Son became Egypt’s largest employer.

Question 21

How did Evelyn Baring reform the Egyptian army (2)?

Answer 21

1) Placed 6000 British troops within it to ensure British military interests were not compromised.
2) The army was placed under the command of Kitchener.

Question 22

Why did Baring offer little educational reform to Egypt, and what education did most Egyptians receive?

Answer 22

1) Having seen the effects of the creation of an educated class in India, Baring did not want to face nationalist movements from an educated class.
2) Egyptians were rarely offered more than a few years of primary schooling, and it was not until 1909 that a new university was opened, teaching modern subjects.

Question 23

How did nationalists oppose British rule in Egypt in the late 1890s (3)?

Answer 23

1) Middle-class nationalists in newspapers criticised the British for the corruption of the Khedive’s government and for doing little for the poor.
2) Complained about the lack of opportunities for educated Egyptians, with the prospect of self government unlikely.
3) A National Party, est 1881, attracted educated Egyptians, sought the end of British occupation and wanted their own representative government.

Question 24

What was the Denshawai Incident (3)?

Answer 24

1) In June 1906, British officers angered Denshawai residents by pigeon shooting near their village. The pigeons were bred for food, so the villagers asked the British to stop.
2) A fight broke out, with a gun going off (allegedly accidently), wounding the wife of a Muslim prayer leader, provoking an attack on the officers.
3) An officer fleeing the scene collapsed, and died of heatstroke. Other British soldiers discovered the body, and killed a villager attempting to help the dead officer, believing him to have killed the officer.

Question 25

What were the consequences of the Denshawai Incident (4)?

Answer 25

1) Britain arrested 52 villagers, with 4 convicted of murder and sentenced to death.
2) 26 were given hard labour and flogged.
3) Created backlash towards British rule in Egypt.
4) Evelyn Baring retired as Consul-General.

Question 26

Who were the 3 Consul-Generals of Egypt (1883-1914)?

Answer 26

1) Sir Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer (1883-1907).
2) Sir Eldon Gorst (1907-11).
3) Herbert Kitchener (1911-14).

Question 27

How did Consul-General Eldon Gorst attempt to consolidate British control over Egypt (2)?

Answer 27

1) He brought more Egyptians into responsible government positions to try and weaken the Egyptian National Party.
2) He imposed tighter censorship of the press in 1909, using penal measures to squash the growing nationalism in Egypt. This was mostly ineffective.

Question 28

How did Consul-General Herbert Kitchener attempt to consolidate British control over Egypt?

Answer 28

He tried to increase British domination in order to curb nationalism. In 1913, a new Legislative Assembly replaced the Advisory Council of Laws and General Assembly. This consisted of 66 elected members and 17 appointed nominees. This increased representation for the rich, rather than the ordinary/poor.

Question 29

What was the significance of the declaration of War in 1914 to British rule in Egypt (2)?

Answer 29

1) Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt in November 1914.
2) The ruling Khedive, an ally of the Ottoman Empire, was overthrown and replaced by Hussein Kamel. He was forced to declare himself an independent Sultan of Egypt, under British protection.

Question 30

What is a Dominion?

Answer 30

A British settler colony with self-governing powers with the British monarch as head of state. Dominion status was only granted to colonies with large white populations.

Question 31

Who was Sir Frederick Lugard (3)?

Answer 31

1) Governor of Hong Kong (1907-12).
2) Governor of Nigeria (1914-19).
3) Author of ‘The Dual Mandate’ (1922), outlining social Darwinist ideas, and how Britain had brough civilisation to ‘primitive’ nations.

Question 32

Who were the settler colonies (3), and how were they governed?

Answer 32

1) Canada.
2) New Zealand.
3) Australia.
The original inhabitants of these nations (e.g. the Aboriginals, the Māori, etc.) were treated as second class citizens, whilst the white elite held forms of self governing power.

Question 33

When did each settler colony become a Dominion (4)?

Answer 33

1) Canada in 1867.
2) Australia in 1901.
3) New Zealand in 1907.
4) The Union of South Africa (although not a settler colony) in 1910.

Question 34

How did Britain use local elites to facilitate British rule across the Empire (4)?

Answer 34

1) The British offered material rewards or influential positions to those who upheld British interests in administration.
2) Sometimes Britain appointed the elites to positions of power, e.g. Sultan Hamad (1893) and Sultan Hamoud (1896) in Zanzibar.
3) Sometimes those in considerable power were allowed to keep it, if they followed British rule. E.g. the Indian Princes.
4) Often large landowners gained titles/privileges, whilst cooperative middle classes gained positions in administration. E.g. the Indian Civil Service.

Question 35

What is meant by invented tradition?

Answer 35

The ways in which traditions could be invented to serve modern purposes.

Question 36

What was the approach of ‘indirect rule’, and give an example?

Answer 36

The use of trusted chiefs to exercise governance, e.g. within the Uganda Protectorate, the Bugandan King maintained autonomy and his chiefs maintained land in exchange for loyalty.

Question 37

What different native policies did Britain adopt in order to expand C1890-1914 (3)?

Answer 37

1) The use of local elites and positions of power.
2) Befriending certain groups.
3) Indirect rule.

Question 38

What was Britain’s international/military policy 1815-88?

Answer 38

‘Splendid isolation’, trusting its Navy to maintain its status and Empire. The army was seen as a secondary importance.

Question 39

Why did British military policy change in 1899-1902?

Answer 39

The Second Anglo-Boer war 1899-1902 demonstrated the need to concentrate military power in South Africa.

Question 40

What was the ‘Great Game’?

Answer 40

Conflict between Britain and Russia in Asia in the 1800s and early 1900s, with Britain concerned over Russian presence near India.

Question 41

What 2 European alliances caused concern to Britain in the 1880s-90s?

Answer 41

1) The German alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1870, joined by Italy in 1882.
2) French alliance with Russia in 1894, following their military agreements in 1892.

Question 42

How did Germany challenge Britain under Kaiser Wilhelm II (3)?

Answer 42

1) Sent a telegram of support to the Boers during the Jameson Raid, and supplying the Boers with weapons during the Second Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902.
2) Developed good relations with the Ottoman Empire, allowing for better access to Africa, the Persian Gulf and India without depending on the British-controlled Suez Canal.
3) Huge spending on the German Navy, entering a naval race with Britain.

Question 43

What was the Triple Entente, why was it made, and what was agreed?

Answer 43

1) An alliance between Britain, France and Russia in 1907.
2) It was made because Britain were facing huge costs from the naval race against Germany, while Russian naval power had just been shattered in the Japanese War (1905), causing internal problems towards the Tsarist regime.
3) The Persian gulf was declared a neutral zone, and Afghanistan was recognised as a British sphere of influence.

Question 44

What were the Moroccan crises 1905, and 1911 (3)?

Answer 44

1) In 1905, the Kaiser visited Morocco, threatening French interests. The matter was resolved in 1906, at the Algeciras Conference, with Britain supporting the French.
2) In 1911, France sent 20,000 troops to disperse Moroccan rebels who had attacked Fez. The Kaiser sent a warship, the Panther, to Agadir to ‘prevent a French invasion’.
3) Britain feared the Kaiser wanted to seize Agadir, near British Gibraltar and prepared the Royal Navy for war. The Kaiser gave way, ordering the Panther home.

Question 45

How did British naval strategy change 1909-14 (3)?

Answer 45

1) After an Imperial Conference of defence in 1909, and a Dominion fleet was considered, Britain realised they could no longer maintain a two power standard for its navy.
2) Britain settled for a 60% margin over the German navy.
3) In July 1912, Britain withdrew the navy from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. This showed Britain were moving away from the defence of Empire, to the defence of Europe.

Question 46

Why did Britain declare War on Germany in August 1914 (2)?

Answer 46

1) A series of Balkan Wars, and the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austria in July 1914, led to conflict between Russia, Italy and Germany.
2) The German invasion of Belgium, and the Kaiser’s failure to reply to the British ultimatum led to Britain declaring War in support of France and Russia on August 4 1914.

Question 47

What was the Edwardian era?

Answer 47

The period 1901 - 1910, under the rule of King Edward VII.