Comparative Theories

Question 1

What type of theory is realism?

Answer 1

Positivist - this means that realists believe it is possible to distinguish between ‘facts’ and ‘values’ and claim to provide an amoral explanation of the world.

Question 2

How did Hans Morgenthau summarise realism?

Answer 2

‘Politics is a struggle for power over men, and whatever its ultimate aim may be, power is its immediate goal’

Question 3

What do realists argue are the most important actors in the global system?

Answer 3

Nation-states

Question 4

What do realists think about human nature?

Answer 4

Human nature is selfish and so states, as conglomerations of humans, are also selfish. Human nature is also fixed.

Question 5

What do realists see as axiomatic (self evident) features of state behaviour?

Answer 5

States are rational and amoral.

They are unitary actors.

They seek power.

Question 6

With whom do realists share beliefs about human nature?

Answer 6

Traditional conservative theorists such as Hobbes, who argued that humans compete for their own-self interest.

Question 7

What do realists (inspired by conservatives) believe about the international arena?

Answer 7

The international arena is effectively a ‘state of nature’ (link to Hobbes) with a multitude of competing state actors but no overarching sovereign actor.

This is international anarchy.

Question 8

What do realists think about concepts such as rights and justice within the system of international anarchy?

Answer 8

These concepts are meaningless since states only act to extend their own interest, with no consideration about morals.

Question 9

Two schools of realist thought

Answer 9

Classical realism (states are selfish because human beings are selfish)

Structural realism (states are selfish because it is the only rational way to survive in a system of international anarchy - prisoners’ dilemma)

Question 10

In terms of which thought experiment do realists understand state interactions?

Answer 10

Prisoners’ Dilemma - two criminals can either stay silent (and both get the lesser sentence of 1 year) or betray eachother (where either one will get 20 years or both will get 5 years). Clearly the best outcome would be for both to stay silent, but neither criminal can trust that the other will not betray them. Therefore, their best option is to betray each other.

Question 11

What do realists believe about power?

Answer 11

Power is a limited resource and therefore that pursuit of power is a zero-sum game (for someone to win, another must lose)

Question 12

What do realists believe about conflict?

Answer 12

It is an inevitable and permanent feature of international relations.

Question 13

What is the security dilemma?

Answer 13

1. States seek power in order to make themselves secure and maintain their interests.
2. Other states see this as a threat, since power is zero-sum.
3. So they try to make themselves more powerful to maintain their interests.
4. Conflict is inevitable because there is no way for states to ‘peacefully’ expand their power.

Question 14

What do realists think about the security dilemma?

Answer 14

It is intractable (unsolvable)

Question 15

Example of the security dilemma in practice?

Answer 15

Tensions between Russia and former Soviet states that have now joined NATO (Russia invading Ukraine due to threat of NATO as its neighbour)

Saudi Arabia (major Sunni power) and Iran (major Shia power) compete for power in the Middle East.

Question 16

Example of realist self-interest in practice?

Answer 16

Britain involving itself in Afghanistan then leaving once the conflict did not suit national interests.

Question 17

What is the just war theory?

Answer 17

‘A just war is one in the national interest’ - Schweller

Question 18

Example of liberal complex interdependence in practice?

Answer 18

Global effort to deal with the 2008 financial crisis - G20 summit chaired by Gordon Brown where national government and the IMF agreed a financial stimulus to put funds into the international banking system

Question 19

What is the billiard ball model?

Answer 19

A realist model that argues that states are independent, self-contained units.

Question 20

What are the Westphalian principles?

Answer 20

Principles establishing state sovereignty from 1648. Said that nation states could not claim the right to interfere with the internal affairs of any other nation states.

Question 21

What did Mearsheimer say about the inevitability of war?

Answer 21

War is inevitable because there is no escape from the security dilemma as states operate to dominate.

Question 22

Who wrote the anarchical society?

Answer 22

Hedley Bull

Question 23

What do liberals believe about human nature?

Answer 23

It is fundamentally altruistic and co-operative, therefore states have the capacity to act as such.

Question 24

What scenario shows the liberal view of human nature?

Answer 24

Rousseau’s stag hunt scenario depicts the benefits of co-operation - humans work best together.

Question 25

How does the liberal view of human nature link to core ideologies?

Answer 25

Socialism - Marx and Engels argued that humans are naturally communal.

Locke - human beings are rational and enter in social contracts (like how states join IGOs to promote peace and common interest)

Question 26

Do liberals think war is inevitable?

Answer 26

No, liberals say that international organisations increase the likelihood of peace and cooperation (e.g. in areas of mutual concern like climate change and nuclear proliferation).

Question 27

Example of IGOs promoting peace?

Answer 27

EU awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 2012 for promoting peace through economic cooperation

Question 28

Example of IGOs promoting collective security?

Answer 28

NATO

Question 29

Who do liberals think are important actors on the world stage?

Answer 29

Not just states, but also IGOs, NGOs, MNCs etc…

Question 30

What did Nye and Keohane say about the relationship between states?

Answer 30

States and their fortunes are now inextricably linked due to (political and economic) globalisation. (complex interdependence)

Question 31

What is the cobweb model?

Answer 31

Shows links between states.

Question 32

What is the Kantian triangle?

Answer 32

Liberal model which argues that institutions (like IGOs), democracy and economic interdependence mutually encourage international cooperation and peace.

Question 33

Other key actors according to liberals

Answer 33

Religious groups (e.g. Catholic Church), social movements (e.g. environmentalism, BLM, #MeToo), transnational corporations (e.g. Apple, Amazon), terrorist groups (e.g. Al Qaeda)

Question 34

Comparative theories on human nature

Answer 34

Realism - human nature is selfish, imperfect and irrational in the long term (even though it is rational in its short term aim of seeking immediate power and security)

Liberalism - human nature can be altruistic, rational and cooperative

Question 35

Comparative theories on power

Answer 35

Realism - power is a finite resource and the pursuit of power is a zero-sum game for states (positive outcomes for one state have to come at the expense of another). Power is necessary for security.

Liberalism - power is unlimited and all states can gain power simultaneously. It is not a game of ‘winners’ and ‘losers’, but of cooperation.

Question 36

Comparative theories on order and security

Answer 36

Realism - the international system is anarchic, so states can act with impunity. Because states don’t trust each other, an intractable ‘security dilemma’ emerges. Peace can only be maintained temporarily by a global hegemon

Liberalism - the international system is characterised by co-operation and complex interdependence, which can provide states with mutual security. States do not have to feel threatened by each other and can establish a stable international order

Question 37

Comparative theories on the likelihood of conflict

Answer 37

Realism - for classical realists, conflict is inevitable because states (as conglomerations of humans) reflect aggressive human nature. For structural realists, conflict is inevitable because the security dilemma means states must pursue power to feel safe, which creates conflict with other states.

Liberalism - it is in the rational long-term interests of states to cooperate and avoid conflict, because conflict is mutually destructive. States will prefer to solve disputes using diplomacy and debate.

Question 38

Comparative theories on international organisations

Answer 38

Realism - international organisations can exist but will be ineffective or eventually fail. Lack of trust and pursuit of national interests means that institutional cooperation is difficult and organisations will be dominated by a global hegemon

Liberalism - international institutions reflect the cooperative ability of states and are growing in number. Over time, they have gained greater influence and powers

Question 39

Comparative theories on the significance of states

Answer 39

Realism - States are the key and only meaningful actors in the global system. They pursue a national interest defined by power, they are unitary and they are amoral.

Liberalism - states are no longer the only actors in the international system, as there are also non-state actors.

Question 40

Comparative theories of globalisation

Answer 40

Realism - it is not a new process, it does not overturn the nation state as they key unit of global politics and it is not truly cooperative (as it involves some states extending their power by dominating institutions).

Liberalism - it is a new process, it has allowed the growth in influence of non-state actors and it is a truly cooperative process in which all states have benefitted.

Question 41

Comparative theories on the UN

Answer 41

Realism - the UNSC reflects the harsh realities of global politics, the GA is toothless in that its resolutions are not binding, the ICJ can only operate where states jointly agree to its jurisdiction

Liberalism - the UNSC has a rotating membership which encourages global participation, the GA is a truly cooperative institution, the ICJ has issued several rulings that have been accepted and implemented

Question 42

Comparative theories on NATO

Answer 42

Realism - during the cold war, NATO functioned as an institution preserving a stable balance of power. In the post Cold War era, NATO’s eastward expansion has triggered a security dilemma, contributing to conflict in Western Europe. It is not a truly cooperative institution but an extension of American dominance.

Liberalism - in the post Cold War era, NATO has adopted a key global role in upholding humanitarianism. NATO is evidence that rational states cooperating to achieve a common good can be effective.

Question 43

Comparative theories on the IMF/World Bank

Answer 43

Realism - the promotion of neo-liberal theory by the IMF and World Bank is designed to entrench the power of the developed world and maintain an exploitative relationship with the developing world. SAPs produce losers so others can win. The IMF and World Bank are not cooperative as they are dominated by the West

Liberalism - the promotion of neo-liberal theory by the IMF and World Bank is a manifestation of rational, classical liberal thinking about the economy - it benefits all participants.

Question 44

Comparative theories on the G7/G20

Answer 44

Realism - both the G7 and G20 represent ‘elite’ clubs of powerful states trying to maintain the status quo in their favour.

Liberalism - the shift from the G7 to G20 demonstrates that decision making is becoming less exclusive (and more cooperative. The G7 and G20 have made many policies which are clearly not the result of amoral self-interest like debt cancellation to developing countries

Question 45

Comparative theories on the WTO

Answer 45

Realism - the WTO does not properly enforce rulings against powerful states, which allows them to maintain superiority. Negotiations for the expansion of WTO rules have stalled, showing that states want to preserve their sovereign capabilities

Liberalism - the WTO has slashed tariffs on trade, which benefits consumers worldwide (this suggests that benefits are mutual, not zero-sum). WTO decision-making is cooperative.

Question 46

Comparative theories on development theory

Answer 46

Realism - the global economy is a zero-sum game. States must be sovereign and self-sufficient in order to tackle poverty, Institutions of global economic governments are designed in order to benefit the interests of some states over others

Liberalism - the best way to tackle poverty is through economic growth and the best way to achieve economic growth is through cooperative international trade. All countries can maximise their benefit. Institutions of global economic governance are designed so that all states benefit.

Question 47

Comparative theories on human rights

Answer 47

Realism - realists would view human rights as an unenforceable fiction - the world is inherently amoral and there are no universal codes of ethics. The concept of universal rights is a Western-specific development and acts as a form of modern imperialism. Human rights can be ignored by powerful states (showing importance of sovereign self-interest)

Liberalism - liberals would view human rights as genuine ethical principles which should underpin and regulate the behaviour of governments towards their citizens. States are increasingly recognising the concept of human rights.

Question 48

Comparative theories on international courts and tribunals

Answer 48

Realism - International courts and tribunals, in the view of realists, are not particularly effective. They are not sovereign institutions, have limited jurisdiction and cannot compel states to act
- The ICJ can only rule on inter-state disputes with state consent
- Tribunals can only really be set up after the resolution of a conflict
- The ICC has limited jurisdiction (only parties to the Rome Statute)
- The ECHR has no enforcement mechanism for its rulings

Liberalism - International courts and tribunals, in the view of liberals, are nascent institutions but they are becoming more effective over time at embedding a human rights doctrine
- The ICJ has made rulings based on the Genocide Convention (Myanmar)
- Tribunals hold national leaders to account and apply universal standards
- The ICC’s jurisdiction is expanding and has reduced violence and war crimes
- The ECHR’s rulings are largely followed, and it has expanded over time

Question 49

Comparative theories on humanitarian intervention

Answer 49

Realism - Humanitarian intervention is generally ineffective and rarely happens because all powerful states block it when it goes against their amoral national self-interests. Where it does occur, it is not to uphold a universal morality or individual rights, but to extend the strategic power of the intervening states and – it is just Western neo-imperialism. State sovereignty remains the key axis of IR

Liberalism - Humanitarian intervention is generally effective where it occurs and represents the international community working together to secure universal rights (above the narrower concerns of state sovereignty and self-interest). Sometimes interventions do not happen, but this is largely correlated with the obstructionism of non-democratic states; as the world becomes more democratic, intervention will work better

Question 50

Comparative theories on the IPCC and UNFCCC

Answer 50

Realism - The IPCC and UNFCCC are ineffective because they have no way of imposing binding targets on sovereign states. Both bodies show that sovereign states act in their own selfish interest, to the detriment of the global community, and will not cooperate because they see the calculation as a zero-sum game

Liberalism - The IPCC and UNFCCC are effective examples of inter-state cooperation, with a growing consensus on anthropogenic climate change and increasingly ambitious agreements and targets over time which include more and more of the world’s states (Kyoto; Copenhagen; Paris). Cooperation leads to mutual gains

Question 51

Comparative theories on unipolarity

Answer 51

Realism - Realists would say that unipolarity is the ideal system of polarity for international relations. The existence of a global hegemon allows it to act as a de facto sovereign and establish a worldwide peace through force of arms. In the absence of challengers, the hegemon can utilise both hard and soft power to achieve a unitary set of objectives. During the 19th century, the British Empire was instrumental in eradicating the Trans-Atlantic slave trade (albeit after doing a great deal to spread it in the first place)

Liberalism - Liberals would say that unipolarity is dangerous, because the existence of an unconstrained hegemon is equivalent to a global tyranny. For liberals, peace is generated through cooperation, but if the hegemon can do whatever it wants without repercussions, then it will disregard concerns about human rights, the legitimacy of war, poverty, the rights of other states, etc. During the 19th century, there were millions of deaths from famine and colonialism in Britain’s Empire across Africa and Asia

Question 52

Comparative theories on bipolarity

Answer 52

Realism - bipolarity is a natural tendency in the world order and is stable, like unipolarity. States seek to establish such a balance to curb the hegemonic ambitions of other states. By establishing a balance of power, either major state is less likely to seek hegemony because they anticipate being countered by the other bloc. The ensuing equilibrium generates peace and stability because of rational fear of the costs of conflict. During the Cold War, neither the USA nor the Soviet Union launched direct attacks on each other or dared to use nuclear weapons, keeping the rivalry relatively ‘cold’

Liberalism - bipolarity is more stable than unipolarity, but still not ideal. This is because unforeseeable circumstances (domestic revolution, natural disaster, economic collapse, etc.) may at some point give one of the dominant states in the bipolar system the ability to emerge as a hegemon. The competition between the two blocs means that more resources are invested into military rivalry and arms races, and there is a lack of proper global integration in terms of trade and common institutions (preventing the emergence of a Kantian peace)

Question 53

Comparative theories on multipolarity

Answer 53

Realism - multipolarity is the least stable system of international relations; because states are always self-interested and amoral actors, they will seek an advantage over other states where it can be gained. Because the system is so finely balanced, even a few states building up an alliance bloc to ‘pool’ their power can upset the balance of power and lead to conflict. As the number of powerful actors increases, so does the number of possible conflicts due to the security dilemma. Realists would argue the breakdown of the multipolar interwar system after the Great Depression (1929 onwards), and the rise of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan were what lead to WWII – there was no strong hegemon to counter them and maintain ‘peace’

Liberalism - multipolarity is the most preferable system of polarity – it means that states are forced to co-operate with each other, because no one state has sufficient power that it can wield unilaterally. There is no one hegemonic de facto sovereign to impose its will and global solutions on other states, so the only way to solve issues like poverty; conflict; human rights; environmental crises, etc. is for states to work together to build some kind of interdependent international architecture. The potential gains of conflict are negligible, whereas the potential gains of cooperation are significant. In the 1920s, France and Germany (despite having been enemies in WWI) collaborated to settle disputes over reparations/payments and their post-war borders, because they recognised neither was powerful enough to ‘enforce’ a solution on the other

Question 54

What is a liberal alternative to the prisoners’ dilemma?

Answer 54

Rousseau’s stag hunt scenario

Question 55

What did Kenneth Waltz argue?

Answer 55

Waltz argued that most of the important features of international relations, especially the actions of great powers, could be explained solely in terms of the anarchical structure of the international system.

Question 56

What was Machiavelli’s view on human nature?

Answer 56

Humans are, above all, malignant, violent and savage’