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BIOL10001 > Concept 3+4 - Prok+Euk > Flashcards

Concept 3+4 - Prok+Euk Flashcards

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1
Q

Timeline of organisms

A
  • earth created
  • life started (unicellular prokaryotes)
  • unicellular eukaryotes
  • multicellular eukaryotic life in oceans
  • eukaryotic land animals
  • humans

General:
GOE -> Ozone layer -> Multicellular eukaryotic organisms underwater -> Cambrian explosion (even more diverse underwater)

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2
Q

How did plants and animals come about? 2 theories

A

THEORY 1
- Multicellular organisms evolved independently
- ie. plants + animals only have a unicellular ancestor
- therefore created different mechanisms to respond to the same thing

THEORY 2:
- plants and animals cells evolve from a COMMON EUKARYOTIC ancestor cell

HENCE…explains why plants and animals share some common but very different intracellular signalling mechanisms!!

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3
Q

What caused the Great Oxygenation Event? Before + what caused it + after

A

BEFORE
- Atmosphere + oceans had no oxygen, high co2, ammonia, methane, and intense UV radiation

WHAT CAUSED IT?
- Photosynthetic cyanobacteria released o2 through photosynthesis
(only safe place were oceans, underwater)

AFTER?
- oxygen collided to form an ozone layer, protecting the Earth from UV
WHAT DID THIS MEAN?
- did not directly cause, but allowed for cambrian explosion

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4
Q

How are archaea different/similar to bacteria - SUMMARISED

A

SIMILAR
- how it looks

DIFFERENT
- think inside cell wall, cell wall, outside cell wall, environment

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5
Q

How are archaea different/similar to bacteria?

A

SIMILAR
- Morphological - look similar to bacteria
(simple coat, simple cellular structure)

DIFFERENT
- Archaea lipids + membranes are unusual
- Lack a peptidoglycan cell wall
- Do not produce endospores (bacteria does)
- Extremophiles - can survive in hot/acidic/saline conditions

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6
Q

How are archaea different to prokaryotes and eukaryotes 3

A

SUMMARISED
- Equally different to both
- In terms of genetics

KEY POINTS
1) half of their genes are totally different to bacteria and eukaryotes
2) Biochemically different to bacteria + eukaryotes
3) Genetic transcription + translation more similar to eukaryotes than bacteria

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7
Q

Phylogenetic trees

A
  • x axis represents time (left = back in time, right = now)
  • read from right to left
  • the more to the left, the further ago in time
  • trace back, see where points intersect
  • intersection represents a COMMON ANCESTOR
  • because - each splitting of a line shows speciation
    -> ie. when one population becomes 2 species (no longer able to reproduce due to isolation)
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8
Q

How do we construct phylogenetic trees?

A
  • compare nucleic acid sequences
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9
Q

Domain and kingdoms mind map

A

PROKARYOTES
- bacteria
- archaea

EUKARYOTES
- eukaryotes

DOMAINS:
- bacteria
- archaea
- eukaryotes

KINGDOMS
- bacteria -> b
- archaea -> a
- eukaryotes -> animalia, protista, plantae, fungi

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10
Q

Eukaryotes vs prokaryotes 5

A

EUKARYOTES
1) Nucleus
2) Membrane bound organelles
3) Linear DNA
4) 70s+80s ribosomes
5) Multicellular + unicellular

PROKARYOTES
1) No nucleus (nucleoid)
2) Do not have membrane bound organelles
3) Circular DNA
4) 70s ribosomes
5) Unicellular

** Cell membrane = plasma membrane

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11
Q

Nucleoid

A
  • Region that contains DNA
  • No surrounding membrane
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12
Q

Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic - similarities 2

A

1) Cell membrane
2) Cytoplasm

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13
Q

What do MOST and SOME bacteria have?

A

MOST
- CELL WALL made of peptidoglycan
(outside membrane)

SOME
- CAPSULE made of polysaccharides
- CELL WALL + CAPSULE
(provides protection from diff environmental conditions)
- Flagellum (motion)
- Pili (fimbriae) - attachment structures, involved in DNA exchange

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14
Q

Ribosomes - structure

A
  • Made of 2 subunits (small + large)
  • Each made of rRNA and proteins
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15
Q

Ribosomes - function + location

A

Carry out protein synthesis

EUKARYOTES
1) Cytosol (free ribosomes)
-> aq portion of cytoplasm
2) Outside of endoplasmic reticulum / Nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

PROKARYOTES
1) Cytosol (free ribosomes)
-> aq portion of cytoplasm
-> p’s have no membrane bound organelles!

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16
Q

70s ribosomes

A

50s+30s = 70s

  • made out of 55 proteins + 3rRNA
  • 2.3mDA in size
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17
Q

80s ribosomes

A

60s+40s = 80s

  • made out of 80 proteins 4rRNA
  • 3.3mDA in size
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18
Q

2 types of bacteria -what feature used to differentiate?

A

CELL WALL! 2 options

1) made out of…
- peptidoglycan layer (thick)

2)
- peptidoglycan layer (thin)
- outer membrane

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19
Q

2 types of bacteria explain

A

1) THICK -> GRAM POSITIVE
- single layer
- simple cell wall
- thick peptidogylcan layer
- no outer membrane
- low lipid levels
- susceptible to antibiotics
- less toxic

2) THIN -> GRAM NEGATIVE
- double layered
- complex cell wall
- thin peptidoglycan layer
- outer membrane present
- higher lipid levels
- very resistant to antibiotics
- more toxic

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20
Q

2 types of bacteria - experimentally how can we know?

A

GRAM STAINING
- add crystal violet
- rinse using alcohol
- stain the bacteria cell wall using red dye

RESULTS?
1) thick peptidoglycan layer = gram positive = appear purple
- thick layer traps the crystal violet in the cytoplasm
- alcohol rinse doesn’t remove the crystal
- red dye is masked

2) thick peptidoglycan layer = gram negative = appears red
- thin layer isn’t able to trap the crystal violet in the cytoplasm
- alcohol rinse removes the crystal
- cel appears red

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21
Q

Ubiquitous - which domain, why?

A
  • means organisms are found everywhere
  • for prokaryotes, but ESP archaea
  • thermophilic, acidophilic
  • able to survive by regulating internal environment! eg. outside is ph2-3, internal ph of 7!
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22
Q

Uses of bacteria?

A

NATURE
1) Nitrogen fixing for legumes (water plants)
- Nitrogen fixing = converting n2 into nh3
- Nitrogen not soluble in water, but nh3 is
- Need nitrogen for amino acids
- Bacteria allows NH3 to dissolve in water, go through the vein system, get to various cells

2) Good bacteria on the human body
- eg. in the intestine
- BUT bacteria PRODUCES toxins that cause damage -> cause disease

3) Cyanobacteria
- huge contribution to GOE great oxygenation event
- led to formation of chloroplasts in land plants

HUMANS MAKING IT USEFUL
4) Recycling
- wastewater goes to a sewage treatment plant
- bacteria eats up all toxins in the water, cleans it thoroughly

5) Genetically modified GM bacteria
- make pharmaceuticals
- make GM plants

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23
Q

Prokaryotes vs eukaryote diversity

A

PROKARYOTES MORE DIVERSE

  • can survive in a diversity of biochemical environments
  • spontaneously mutate at a higher frequency
  • larger biochemical diversity
  • however eukaryotes more specialised + complex structures - more efficient at their function
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24
Q

Prokaryotes - can they grow in cell culture?

A
  • should grow and divide!
  • WITHOUT central nucleus
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25
Nucleus
SUNNY SIDE UP 1) Nuclear membrane = inner + outer membrane = double membrane 2) Nucleolus 3) Chromatin 4) Nuclear pore NUCLEAR ENVELOPE = nuclear + membrane + pores
26
DNA molecule + histones
ONE Dna molecule → wrapped around histones → chromatin → coiled up → chromosomes
27
Chromosomes vs chromatids
Chromosomes = think of centromere Pair of chromosomes will NOT be identical - one from mum, one from dad (eg. same gene in same place, diff allele) Chromatid = only present Will be identical from duplicated chromosomes, one half, after mitosis Present after DNA replication interphase in mitosis Finished after mitosis - back to chromosome SO…after finished mitosis, no longer called chromatids, now called chromosomes!
28
Do eukaryotic and prokaryotic species have the same no. of chromosomes?
no
29
Mitochondria structure
has double membrane - outer membrane = normal - inner membrane = folded, so called CRISTAE - studded w/ stalked particles, which are the site of ATP synthesis. -> folding gives high SA:Vol ratio - INSIDE inner membrane = matrix // has circular strands of dna + enzymes
30
Chloroplast structure + function
- double membrane - sacs = thylakoid --> stacks of these = grana - stacks floating in stroma - lamella hold the thylakoids together - sacs contain chlorophyll + photosynthetic pigments FUNCTION: - site of photosynthesis// chlorophyll traps sunlight
31
Compare sizes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- bacteria = small - archaea = similar to bacteria, but can be bigger - eukaryote = largest cell
32
cell division in bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes
Bacteria + archaea = binary fission Eukaryotes = mitosis
33
Cell wall comparison
- bacteria = peptidoglycan - archaea = pseudo-peptidoglycan - plant cells = cellulose - fungal cells = chitin
34
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
- bacteria/archaea = unicellular - eukaryotes = unicellular, multicellular
35
prokaryotes + eukaryotes - which undergo nitrogen fixation?
- bacteria = yes - archaea = some can - eukaryotes = no
36
Origin of the nucleus
- prokaryote cell = nuceloid (containing DNA) + membrane - INVAGINATIONS/FOLDING OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE around the nuceloid - formation of a nuclear envelope around DNA = nucleus
37
Primary endosymbiosis vs secondary endosymbiosis
PRIMARY - eukaryotic cell engulfs a prokaryotic cell SECONDARY - eukaryotic cell engulfs an eukaryotic cell
38
How were mitochondria made? 5
PRIMARY ENDOSYMBIOSIS START 1) PURPLE BACTERIA, AEROBIC has 2 membranes (double membrane) GETTING IT INSIDE 2) Engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell (used to be prokaryote) -> via ENDOCYTOSIS 3) SO...gets surrounded by a food vacuole 4) Mutation - purple bacteria doesn't get digested. Over time the vacuole membrane breaks down. BECOMING AN ORGANELLE 5) This leaves us with an ENDOSYMBIONT - but once it transfers its genetic info into the nucleus, more of the mitochondria can be produced, it becomes an organelle (part of the cell!!) **note: vacuole is the vesicle made from endocytosis
39
How were chloroplast made? 2
SAME AS ABOVE EXCEPT... - Cyanobacteria, photosynthetic -> double membrane - Engulfed by an existing eukaryotic cell (chloroplasts exist after mitochondria)
40
Plastid? Example, features 3
EXAMPLE - Chloroplast (NOT mitochondria) FEATURES? - Double membrane bound ORGANELLE - Have their own DNA and ribosomes - Found in photosynthetic eukaryotic cells (plants + algae) - Only considered a plastid when it transfers genetic info to the host cell (independent endosymbiont -> organelle)
41
How does cyanophora with cyanelles prove that primary endosymbiosis was used to create chloroplasts?
- Cyanelle = plastid - They have a peptidoglycan wall between inner + outer membrane - peptidoglycan wall only present in cyanobacteria -> suggests organelle was preciously cyanobacteria -> NOT common ancestor (this means speciation, not same as engulfing a bacteria!)
42
How to identify proof that mitochondria + chloroplasts come from endosymbiosis?
THINK OF HOW THEY ARE SIMILAR TO BACTERIA + CAN OPERATE ALONE 1) Have double membranes - Seen in purple bacteria + cyanobacteria - Not seen in other eukaryotic organelles 2) DNA type - Have circular DNA, separate from host cell’s genome 3) Contain own ribosomes - Can make their own proteins Reproduction - Mitochondria + chloroplast can reproduce independently via binary fission
43
Secondary endosymbiosis -
WHAT WE START WITH 1) Eukaryotic cell has chloroplast, nucleus 2) Eukaryotic cell needs a chloroplast, only has a mitochondria and nucleus so engulfs the other eukaryotic cell - via ENDOCYTOSIS 3) SO...gets surrounded by a food vacuole 4) BUT THIS TIME VACUOLE MAY OR MAY NOT BREAK DOWN - Situation one = 3 membranes = OG double membrane, engulfed cell membrane, vacuole membrane - Situation two = 4 membranes = OG double membrane, engulfed cell membrane BECOMING AN ORGANELLE 5) As this happens, genetic material (nuclear, chloroplast) is transferred to the host cell nucleus - so now host cell total of 3 genomes
44
Primary vs Secondary endosymbiosis - no. of membranes?
PRIMARY - 2 membranes - OG bacterias originally have a double membrane - vacuole membrane breaks down SECONDARY - 3/4 membranes - OG bacterias originally have a double membrane
45
Similarities of plants + animal cells 7
1) Nucleus 2) Both have cell membrane 3) Mitochondria 4) Cytoskeleton - made up of microtubules, structure of cell 5) Endoplasmic reticulum - smooth + rough 6) Golgi apparatus 7) 3 ribosomes in the cytoplasm
46
Differences of plants + animal cells 4
ONLY PLANT CELLS HAVE... 1) Cell wall 2) Chloroplasts 3) Huge vacuole 4) Peroxisomes - kills toxins
47
Vacuole function
- Impacts turgidity of the cell - Absorbs water, changes shape + structure
48
Kinase
enzyme that adds a phosphate group (phosphorylation)
49
Checkpoints (Restriction Points) in the cell cycle - regulated by what, how do they regulate?
WHAT IS IT? - specific DECISION points where the cell PAUSES - should cell division continue or not? REGULATED BY WHAT? - cyclin-CDK complexes (cyclin dependent kinase) - ie. made up of cyclin + CDK HOW DO THEY REGULATE? - CDK portion phosphorylate can target proteins. - If conditions are met: adding phosphates will stimulate the cell cycle - But if conditions are not met : cyclin interact with signaling pathways to stop the cell cycle / activates other kinases to halt the cell cycle
50
Cyclins in diff stages of the cell cycle
Different cyclins regulate different stages: G1 cyclin S cyclin G2/M cyclin M cyclin
51
What triggers halt the cell cycle?
- G1 PHASE = DNA damage - S PHASE = Incomplete replication - G2 PHASE = DNA damage - MITOSIS = Chromosomes unattached to spindle in Mitosis
52
Differences in membranes of euk, prok, arch
SUMMARISE - ALL organisms need a membrane (regulation!!) - Will vary based on single celled/multicellular organisms SIMILARITIES - KEY STRUCTURE = phospholipid - All contain lipids - Ester linked (glycerol + 2 fatty acid tails) - All membranes unbranched DIFFERENCES - SIDE CHARACTERS - Cholesterol composition - Different intermembrane proteins suited for different functions - Diff cellular receptors - Diff fluidity and complexity
53
3 domains - eukaryotes, archea, bacteria- relationship between all
LUCA = last universal common ancestor IT IS UNKNOWN!! - Each time there is a point = speciation event - EACH bacteria + archaea + eukaryotes come from common ancestor, not each other - Common ancestor SPECIATES → bacteria + LUCA - Luca SPECIATES → archaea + LUCA - Luca SPECIATES → 2 other LUCA - One LUCA SPECIATES → protists + plants - One LUCA SPECIATES → animals + fungi
54
Why is there more prokaryotic cells than eukaryotic in the body?
WHAT I WAS GOING TO SAY Binary fission Tend to be less specialised RIGHT ANSWER: Prokaryotic cells tend to be bacteria cells Live on any epidermal surface w/ contact w/ the outside environment Live on the skin surface, respiratory system, digestive, reproductive tract of the body Can perform beneficial roles eg. digestion Others can have no impact/pathogenic Smaller than eukaryotic cells
55
how to determine if a single celled organism is prok or euk via lab?
- Microscopy - Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles, membrane bound nucleus
56
Why are euk cells larger than prok? why is this possible 4 MARKS
- As cell size increases → SA:Vol ratio decreases → rate that nutrients/waste materials is transported across the membrane is too slow → cell can’t function properly → won’t grow + can’t support metabolic reactions - Organelles allow for compartmentalisation - materials don’t affect their environment - Organelles help move these materials around effectively eg. RER, SER, Golgi, vesicles
57
Compartmentalisation in organisms 2
1) ORGANELLES (ie. the fact they are enclosed by membranes!) - Allows for different CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS to exist in the same cell - More SPECIALISATION - Increases EFFICIENCY of cellular activities 2) NUCLEAR ENVELOPE - Nuclear pores create selective entry an exit
58
Eukaryotic cells are very complex, explain the benefits
Complex = have different organelles - Each have a specific function - Allows for division of labour, increase in efficiency Organelles = allows for COMPARTMENTALISATION - Allows for a wide range of chemical conditions in a cell (eg. pH) - So various chemical reactions in the cell
59
Explain how the structure of an enzyme makes that enzyme specific. What is the relationship between an enzyme and the equilibrium point of a reaction?
a). Enzymes have a three-dimensional (tertiary) structure with an active site in which the substrate fits. Chemical groups at the active site also bind to the substrate noncovalently. b). While an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proceeds more rapidly to its equilibrium than an uncatalyzed reaction, the actual equilibrium point is unaffected. The enzyme does not affect the equilibrium itself—the final amount of product(s) relative to reactant(s) in the system.
60

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