Conscience

Question 1

What is Aquinas’ theory of natural law?

Answer 1

Aquinas’ natural law theory states that God is the source of morality, and human conscience involves understanding and applying natural moral law through reason.

Question 2

How does Aquinas define conscience?

Answer 2

Conscience is the practical reason that allows individuals to make moral judgments and apply natural law.

Question 3

What is the difference between theoretical and practical reason in Aquinas’ philosophy?

Answer 3

Theoretical reason is about knowing abstract truths, while practical reason (practica ratio) involves applying knowledge to real-life moral decisions.

Question 4

What is synderesis in Aquinas’ theory?

Answer 4

Synderesis is the innate human habit or ability to recognize fundamental moral principles, leading to an orientation toward the good.

Question 5

What is the synderesis rule?

Answer 5

The synderesis rule states that “the good is what all things seek as their telos,” meaning human nature is innately directed toward good.

Question 6

What are primary precepts according to Aquinas?

Answer 6

Primary precepts are fundamental moral principles that reflect human nature’s orientation toward the good.

Question 7

Why does Aquinas argue that primary precepts are infallible?

Answer 7

Aquinas claims primary precepts are infallible because they align with God’s will; however, people may still make mistakes in applying them.

Question 8

What is conscientia in Aquinas’ theory?

Answer 8

Conscientia is an individual’s ability to apply reason in making moral judgments, which can sometimes lead to mistakes.

Question 9

Why does Aquinas emphasize prudence in moral decision-making?

Answer 9

Prudence is crucial because it ensures not only understanding moral principles but also their correct application to specific situations.

Question 10

What are the three intellectual skills required for prudence?

Answer 10

Understanding

Judgment

Good deliberation

Question 11

What is vincible ignorance?

Answer 11

Vincible ignorance is a lack of knowledge for which a person is responsible, making them blameworthy.

Question 12

What is invincible ignorance?

Answer 12

Invincible ignorance is a lack of knowledge for which a person is not responsible, as it was beyond their control to know better.

Question 13

How does Aquinas view the relationship between knowledge and consent?

Answer 13

Informed consent requires proper knowledge; therefore, a lack of knowledge can impact moral responsibility.

Question 14

What are the three functions of conscience in relation to guilt?

Answer 14

Witness – Knowing whether one has performed an action.

Bind & Incite – Judging whether something should be done or avoided.

Accuse, Torment & Rebuke – Feeling guilt when something is judged as morally wrong.

Question 15

What is a major criticism of Aquinas’ optimistic view of human nature?

Answer 15

Critics argue that human history, including events like Nazism, suggests human nature is not inherently good.

Question 16

How does Aquinas respond to the criticism regarding human evil?

Answer 16

Aquinas acknowledges that humans can fail to do good due to original sin, mistakes in reasoning, lack of virtue, or corrupt cultures.

Question 17

What is descriptive moral relativism, and how does it challenge Aquinas’ view?

Answer 17

Descriptive moral relativism states that moral beliefs vary across cultures, suggesting there is no universal moral law.

Question 18

How do universal moral similarities support Aquinas’ theory?

Answer 18

Despite cultural differences, common moral values such as prohibitions against murder and theft suggest an innate moral orientation.

Question 19

How does Karl Barth criticize Aquinas’ reliance on reason?

Answer 19

Barth argues that Aquinas’ natural law theory overemphasizes human reason, making divine revelation seem unnecessary.

Question 20

How does Freud’s approach to conscience differ from Aquinas’?

Answer 20

Freud provides a psychological explanation of conscience, seeing it as a product of internalized parental and societal prohibitions.

Question 21

What are the three components of Freud’s psyche?

Answer 21

Id – Instinctive impulses seeking pleasure.

Ego – The rational mediator between the id and societal expectations.

Super-ego – Internalized societal and parental moral standards.

Question 22

How does Freud describe the id and libido?

Answer 22

The id seeks pleasure, and libido is a key driving force behind human instincts, particularly sexual impulses.

Question 23

What is the role of the ego in Freud’s model?

Answer 23

The ego mediates between the id’s desires and the demands of social reality.

Question 24

What is the super-ego, and how does it develop?

Answer 24

The super-ego internalizes societal and parental moral standards, often creating feelings of guilt.

Question 25

How does Freud’s theory relate to socialization?

Answer 25

Freud argues that socialization requires controlling the id, a process that occurs through different developmental stages.

Question 26

What is the Oedipus complex?

Answer 26

The Oedipus complex is Freud’s idea that boys subconsciously desire their mothers and wish to replace their fathers.

Question 27

How does Freud link guilt to the Oedipus complex?

Answer 27

Freud believes guilt originates from repressed desires and collective memory of past human behaviors.

Question 28

What is Karl Popper’s main criticism of Freud’s theory?

Answer 28

Popper argues Freud’s theory is unscientific because it is unfalsifiable—there is no way to prove it wrong.

Question 29

How does Piaget’s research support some of Freud’s ideas?

Answer 29

Piaget found that young children’s morality is shaped by authority figures before they develop independent moral reasoning.

Question 30

How does Aquinas' natural law theory avoid Freud’s critique?

Answer 30

Aquinas argues that moral law engages human rationality and is not merely imposed externally.

Question 31

How does Freud view religion’s role in moral development?

Answer 31

Freud sees religion as a tool for repressing antisocial instincts, which was historically useful but is now outdated.

Question 32

What does Freud mean by calling religious morality "primitive and childish"?

Answer 32

Freud believes religious moral systems rely on guilt and fear rather than rational self-control, making them less effective.

Question 33

Why does Freud think a secular society would be better than a religious one?

Answer 33

Freud argues that secular societies promote better self-control without relying on guilt-based religious teachings.